Criticism of Judaism

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Criticism of Judaism refers to criticism of Jewish religious doctrines, texts, laws and practices, and their consequences. Early criticism originated in inter-faith polemics between Christianity and Judaism. Important disputations in the Middle Ages gave rise to widely publicized criticisms as well as antisemitic canards. Modern criticisms also reflect the inter-branch Jewish schisms between Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism, and Reform Judaism.

Contents

[edit] Doctrines and precepts

[edit] Personal God

See also: Personal God and Philosophy of Spinoza

Baruch Spinoza,[1] Mordecai Kaplan,[2] and prominent atheists[3] have criticized Judaism because its theology and religious texts describe a personal God who has conversations with important figures from ancient Judaism (Moses, Abraham, etc.) and forms relationships and covenants with the Jewish people. Spinoza and Kaplan instead believed God is abstract, impersonal, or a force of nature.[1][2] Theologian and philosopher Franz Rosenzweig suggested that the two viewpoints are both valid and are complementary within Judaism.[4]

[edit] Chosen people

Main article: Jews as a chosen people#Criticism_of_chosenness:_Reconstructionist_Judaism

Most branches of Judaism consider Jews to be the "chosen people" in the sense that they have special role to "preserve God's revelations"[5] or to "affirm our common humanity".[6] This attitude is reflected, for example, in the policy statement of Reform Judaism which holds that Jews have a responsibility to "cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth."[7] Some secular and critics affiliated with other religions claim the concept implies favoritism or superiority,[8] as have some Jewish critics, such as Baruch Spinoza.[9] Antisemitic individuals and groups often cite the concept of chosenness in their criticisms of Judaism.[10] Many Jews find the concept of chosenness problematic or an anachronism,[10] and such concerns led to the formation of Reconstructionist Judaism, whose founder, Mordecai Kaplan, rejected the concept of the Jews as the chosen people and argued that the view of the Jews as the chosen people was ethnocentric.[11]

[edit] Land ownership conflicts in Middle East

See also: Religious Zionism #Criticism, Land of Israel, 1948 Palestinian exodus, and Masei#Instructions for taking the land

Critics claim that religious Zionism's precepts have led to land ownership conflicts and expulsion of peoples in the Middle East.[12][13] Specifically, some critics cite the Tanakh's (Jewish Bible's) notion of a "Promised Land" (ha-Aretz ha-Muvtachat) - which promises to the Jews the "Land of Israel" (Eretz Israel) - as a factor in the settlement of the Middle East,[14] as described by one analyst: "Zionism aspires to restore the Biblical promised boundaries. It is a new manifestation of the ancient aspiration for the Land of Israel promised in the Bible."[15] Critics also claim that verses from the Tanakh (Jewish Bible) are used to provide religious justification and motivation for confiscation and expulsion, citing specifically Numbers 33:50-55:[16] However, many religious leaders consider Zionism to be a political, not a religious concept; and some believe that returning to the promised land in moderns times should be discouraged.

[edit] Historical accuracy of origins and foundations

See also Historicity of Hebrew bible, Documentary Hypothesis

Some critics claim that events and figures that are central to the formation of Judaism and its laws are historically implausible, including the events surrounding the Exodus, the tradition that the Torah was written by Moses, and the events surrounding the battle of Jericho.[17] Some scholars, however, reject the notion that the Tanakh should be considered an historical work, emphasizing the role of myth, legend, and folk motifs played in its origin, or note the modern conception of history is much different than the views held in the past.[18][19][20][21] Also, some branches of Judaism do not interpret these narratives literally, and many Jews consider those narratives to be metaphorical or allegorical.

[edit] Inter-branch criticisms

[edit] Criticism of Conservative Judaism from other branches

Main article: Criticism of Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law).[22] It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of lesbians and gay men — all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.[23] (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the "celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."[24])

[edit] Criticism of traditional Judaism by reform movement

See also: Reform movement in Judaism, Jewish schisms, Jewish Enlightenment, and Reform Judaism (North America)

The reform movement grew out of dissatisfaction with several aspects of traditional Judaism or Rabbinic Judaism, as documented in polemics and other 19th and early 20th century writings.[25] Louis Jacobs, a prominent Masorti Rabbi, described the polemics beween the Orthodox and the Reform movements as follows:

"The polemics between Orthodox, as the traditionalists came to be called, and the Reformers were fierce. The Orthodox treated Reform as rank heresy, as no more than a religion of convenience which, if followed, would lead Jews altogether out of Judaism. The Reformers retorted that, on the contrary, the danger to Jewish survival was occasioned by the Orthodox who, through their obscurantism, failed to see that the new challenges facing Judaism had to be faced consciously in the present as Judaism had faced, albeit unconsciously, similar challenges in the past."
—Louis Jacobs, The Jewish religion: a companion, Oxford University Press, p. 4. (1995)

David Einhorn, an American Reform rabbi, calls Reform Judaism a "liberation" of Judaism :

"There is at present a rent in Judaism which affects its very life, and which no covering, however glittering, can repair. The evil which threatens to corrode gradually all the healthy bone and marrow must be completely eradicated, and this can be done only if, in the name and in the interest of the religion, we remove from the sphere of our religious life all that is corrupt and untenable, and solemnly absolve ourselves from all obligations toward it in the future; thus we may achieve the liberation of Judaism for ourselves and for our children, so as to prevent the estrangement from Judaism."
—David Einhorn, Philipson, David (1907) The Reform Movement in Judaism, Macmillian.

The criticisms of traditional Judaism included criticisms asserting that the Torah's laws are not strictly binding;[25][26] criticisms asserting that many ceremonies and rituals are not necessary;[27] criticisms asserting that Rabbincal leadership is too authoritarian;[25][28] criticisms asserting that there was too much superstition; criticisms asserting that traditional Judaism leads to isolation from other communities;[29] and criticisms asserting that traditional Judaism over-emphasized the exile.[25][30]

Some of these criticisms were anticipated in a much earlier time, by philosopher Uriel da Costa (1585–1640) who criticized the Rabbinic authorities and the Talmud for lack of authenticity and spirituality.[1]

[edit] Violence

Main article: Judaism and violence

The love of peace and the pursuit of peace, as well as laws requiring the eradication of evil, sometimes using violent means, co-exist in the Jewish tradition.[31][32]

[edit] Ancient

Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts allegedly endorse or glorify violence, including violence against innocent peoples. The battle of Jericho (Joshua 6:1-27),[33] the story of Amalekites (1 Sam 15:1-6),[34] the story of the Midianites (Numbers 31:1-18),[3] and the Purim festival[35] are cited as sources of violent attitudes that are allegedly endorsed by Judaism and its religious texts.[12][36] Modern religious authorities repudiate the sort of warfare described in the Torah, or claim that the events were exaggerated or metaphorical. Others point out that while religious texts have been used to justify violence, Jewish traditions mitigate calls to violent actions, Jewish law holds that the calls to violence these texts provide no longer apply, or that Jewish theology instructs Jews to leave vengeance to God.[37][38] According to Rabbi Judah Loew of Prague, Jewish law forbids the killing of innocent people, even in the course of a legitimate military engagement.[39]

[edit] Modern

See also: Jewish religious terrorism and Religious fanaticism#Judaism

Judaism's religious texts endorse compassion and peace, and the Hebrew Bible contains the well-known commandment to "love thy neighbor as thyself".[32] In fact, the love and pursuit of peace are key principles in Jewish law. The Jewish tradition permits waging war and killing in certain cases, but requires that one always seek a just peace before waging war.[31] Yet, in several cases, Judaism has been associated with violent and terrorist individuals and organizations in modern times, such as Gush Emunim Underground (formed by members of Gush Emunim),[40] Brit HaKanaim, the Jewish Defense League founded in 1969 by Rabbi Meir Kahane,[41] Kach and Kahane Chai,[42] Yaakov Teitel,[43] and Baruch Goldstein, perpetrator of the Cave of the Patriarchs Massacre.[44] Such instances of religious violence are considered by many to be extremist aberrations, and not representative of the tenets of Judaism.[37][38]

[edit] Discrimination

[edit] Laws that discriminate against non-Jews

See also: Activities_prohibited_on_Shabbat #Controversy

Judaism has been criticized because its religious laws contain several provisions that discriminate against non-Jews, such as the rule that there is no need to return lost property belonging to non-Jews, and the asymmetry in compensation rules following ox-goring incidents.[25][45] Some of Judaism's precepts have been criticized because they could be interpreted to mean that Jews should not violate the Sabbath in order to save non-Jews that are dying.[25] Some critics point to the fact that the Talmud includes the maxim "[non-Jews] are neither to be lifted out of a well nor hauled down into it."[46] Critics also cite the writings of Maimonides (1137–1204), an important Rabbinical commentator, who wrote "as for gentiles [non-Jews], the basic Talmudic principle is that their lives must not be saved, although it is also forbidden to murder them outright."[47]

Religious authorities have pointed out that those religious dicta must be interpreted within the context in which they were created, and that non-Jews in that context were idolaters.[48] Arguments against such discrimination were posited by leading rabbis starting in the Middle Ages, and the rules are no longer enforced.[49] All rabbinic authorities agree that the Sabbath should be violated to save any human life, including non-Jews.[50][51]

[edit] Women

See also: Jewish Feminism

[edit] Divorce and agunah

See also: Agunah

Judaism, particularly the Orthodox formulation, has been criticized because its religious laws can sometimes result in women being trapped in abusive relationships, and for tolerating the status of agunah.[52] Many criticisms focus on the fact that women may be trapped in a marriage, because divorce cannot be granted without the husband's consent, and some husbands refuse to grant the consent.[53] However, the Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism formulations permit women to obtain divorces without the consent of husbands.

[edit] Inequality

See also: Patriarchy and Women rabbis

Judaism has been criticized because some of its religious laws and religious texts are alleged to treat women with a status inferior to men, excluding women from some rituals and ceremonies,[54] prohibiting them from being rabbis or holding certain other positions of authority,[55] which sometimes leads women to feel helpless, powerless, and like outsiders.[56] Some critics blame Judaism and its religious texts for being the source of widespread patriarchal attitudes in the modern world.[54][57] Author Naomi Gaetz addresses the contention by some feminists that Judaism is the source of many sexist beliefs. She quotes Tikva Frymer-Kensky: "Israel was neither the creator of patriarchy, nor the worst perpetrator in the ancient world.…Nevertheless, we make a profound statement when we acknowledge that the Bible is patriarchal. We are brought to the realization that the Bible contains a fundamental moral flaw: it does not treat all humans as equals."[58] Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism generally provide women with privileges comparable to men.[citation needed]

[edit] Niddah (menstruation laws)

See also: Niddah

Judaism has been criticized because the religious rules governing menstruation (generally known as niddah) are claimed to cause some women to view their bodies as damaged, and to cause some women to feel oppressed.[59][60] Tova Hartman wrote "The rules that govern religious women's bodies are often criticized as oppressive methods of domination".[56] However, one commentator noted that "Rabbinic commentary did not unilaterally focus on the menstruating woman as pariah. For every statement stressing defilement, danger, and impurity, exists a counter-statement emphasizing respect toward women, the holiness of sexual intimacy, and the incidental benefits of sexual regulation and restraint."[59]

[edit] Homosexuality

Main article: Homosexuality and Judaism

Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts condemn homosexual activity, and because some branches, such as Orthodox Judaism, prohibit homosexual activity. Orthodox Judaism does not, however, exclude homosexual individuals.[61] Although Conservative Judaism traditionally disallowed homosexuals from serving in official capacities, in 2006 the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly voted to allow homosexuals to become rabbis[24] adopting a position similar to that held by Reform Judaism, which accepts gay and lesbian members and does not oppose homosexuals serving as rabbis or cantors.

[edit] Hostility towards other faiths

See also: Christian-Jewish disputations

[edit] Persecution of early Christians

See also: Persecution of Christians#Persecution of early Christians in Judea

Judaism has been criticized because it is alleged that leaders of Judaism, particularly during the first few centuries CE, persecuted Christians. In opposition to this view, many historians conclude that the Romans were responsible for the death of Jesus, and the Roman Catholic church issued a proclamation absolving modern Jews of collective guilt for the death. Some critics also include the death of Jesus as an example of persecution of early Christians, claiming that leaders of Judaism played a key role in bringing about the death of Jesus.[62]

[edit] Insults directed at Jesus

See also: Quotations about Jesus in the Talmud and Toledot Yeshu

Judaism has been criticized because the Talmud, the Tosefta, and the Toldoth Yeshu are claimed to refer to Jesus in an insulting manner, such as: stating that Jesus is condemned to hell and boiled in excrement;[63][64][65][66] stating that he was executed for sorcery; stating that his mother Mary was a whore or adulterer; and identifying Jesus by the Hebrew name Yeshu[67] which, it is alleged, is not a short form of the name Yeshua, but rather an acrostic signifying "may his name and memory be blotted out".[63][64][65][68] Many scholars of Judaism maintain that the person identified as Yeshu in the Talmud is not Jesus,[68] and the general trend in Judaism over the past two thousand years has been to treat Jesus with increasing sympathy.[64]

[edit] Practices

[edit] Shechitah (ritual slaughter)

See also: Shechitah #Animal welfare controversies and Kashrut #Kashrut and animal welfare

Judaism's practice of shechitah (ritual slaughter of animals) has been criticized by animal rights groups, such as PETA, for being cruel and inhumane.[69] Proponets of the practice claim that shechitah is painless because the animal quickly loses consciousness.[70]

[edit] Brit milah (circumcision ritual)

Judaism has been criticized for its practice of brit milah, a circumcision ritual performed on young boys, because the ritual is perceived as painful, cruel, tantamount to genital mutilation, and conducted without the boy's consent.[71] An anti-brit milah movement is active among some Jews.[72][73] However, many view brit milah as an important religious ritual, involving only minor pain.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ a b c Nadler, Steven (2001). Spinoza: a life. Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–72, 135–136, 145–146, 274–281. ISBN 0521002931. 
  2. ^ a b Kertzer, Morris N. (1999) "What is a Jew?" in Introduction to Judaism: A Source Book (Stephen J. Einstein, Lydia Kukoff, Eds.), Union for Reform Judaism, 1999, p. 243
  3. ^ a b Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 37, 245. ISBN 0618680004. 
  4. ^ Oppenheim, Michael D. (1997). Speaking/writing of God: Jewish philosophical reflections. SUNY press. p. 107. 
  5. ^ Wilhoit, Francis M. (1979). The quest for equality in freedom. Transaction Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 0878552405. 
  6. ^ Goodheart, Eugene (2004). Confessions of a secular Jew: a memoir. Transaction Publishers. pp. xv-xvi, 83. ISBN 0765805995. 
  7. ^ "The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism, Columbus, Ohio, 1937". http://ccarnet.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=40&pge_id=1606. 
  8. ^ Wistrich, Robert S.. Demonizing the other: antisemitism, racism & xenophobia. Taylor & Francis, 1999. p. 6. ISBN 9057024977. 
  9. ^
    • Eliezer Schwied (2007) "Does the Idea of Jewish Election Have Any Meaning after the Holocaust?". In Wrestling with God: Jewish theological responses during and after the Holocaust, Steven T. Katz, Shlomo Biderman (Eds.); Oxford University Press, p 233.
    • Gürkan, S. Leyla (2008). The Jews as a Chosen People: Tradition and Transformation. Taylor & Francis. pp. 49–55. ISBN 0415466075. 
  10. ^ a b Dennis Prager; Joseph Telushkin (2003). Why the Jews?: the reason for antisemitism. Touchstone. p. 26. ISBN 0743246209. http://books.google.com/books?id=QmyjieP5mFsC&lpg=PA25&dq=are%20jews%20chosen%20people&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q=are%20jews%20chosen%20people&f=false. 
  11. ^
    • Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. pp. 56–57. ISBN 0684852659. 
    • Pasachoff, Naomi E. (2005). A concise history of the Jewish people. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 276. ISBN 0742543668. 
  12. ^ a b Salaita, Steven George (2006). The Holy Land in transit: colonialism and the quest for Canaan. Syracuse University Press. p. 54. ISBN 081563109X. 
  13. ^
  14. ^ Masalha, Nur (2007). The Bible and Zionism: invented traditions, archaeology and post-colonialism in Palestine-Israel. Zed Books. p. 194. ISBN 1842777610. 
  15. ^
    • Harkabi, Yehoshafat (1974). Arab attitudes to Israel. John Wiley and Sons. p. 75. ISBN 0470352035. 
  16. ^
    • Kassim, Anis F. (2000). The Palestine Yearbook of International Law, 1998-1999, Volume 10. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 9041113045. 
    • Raphael Israeli, Palestinians Between Israel and Jordan', Prager, 1991, pages 158-159, 171, 182.
  17. ^
    • Schimmel, Solomon (2008). The tenacity of unreasonable beliefs: fundamentalism and the fear of truth. Oxford University Press US. p. 39,56,61,240. ISBN 0195188268. 
    • Mendes-Flohr, Paul (2009). 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought. Jewish Publication Society. p. 681. ISBN 0827608926,. 
    • John Van Seters (2004) "Historicity of Moses", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. pp 194-207.
    • Thomas M. Bolin (2004) "Warfare and the Hebrew Bible", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. p. 45.
    • David Novak (1993) "The Election of Israel: Outline of a Philosphical analysis", in A People apart: chosenness and ritual in Jewish philosophical thought Daniel H. Frank (Ed.) SUNY Press, 1993; p. 22
  18. ^ Redmount, Carol A.. "Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt". The Oxford History of the Biblical World: pp.63–64. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&dq=Michael+Coogan+ed.+The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=XxxdS8zrL4yOkQWBqIWfAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Michael%20Coogan%20ed.%20The%20Oxford%20History%20of%20the%20Biblical%20World&f=false. 
  19. ^ Coogan, Michael D.. "In the Beginning: The Earliest History". The Oxford History of the Biblical World: p.22. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&dq=Michael+Coogan+ed.+The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=XxxdS8zrL4yOkQWBqIWfAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Michael%20Coogan%20ed.%20The%20Oxford%20History%20of%20the%20Biblical%20World&f=false. 
  20. ^ Thompson, Thomas L. (November 2002). The historicity of the patriarchal narratives: the quest for the historical. Trinity Press International. p. 187. http://books.google.com/books?id=lwrzapZYqFAC&lpg=PP1&ots=lKbIxWdJL4&dq=historicity%20of%20jericho&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q=historicity%20of%20jericho&f=false. 
  21. ^ Adele Berlin, Marc Zvi Brettler, Michael Fishbane, Michael A. Fishbane. The Jewish study Bible. Jewish Publication Society. p. 11, 103–105, 452–454. ISBN 0195297512. http://books.google.com/books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC&lpg=PA454&dq=Tanakh%20historicity&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q=Tanakh%20historicity&f=false. 
  22. ^ Avi Shafran, "The Conservative Lie", Moment, February 2001.
  23. ^ Joe Berkofsky, "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals", j., March 5, 2004.
  24. ^ a b Laurie Goodstein, Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions, The New York Times, 2006.
  25. ^ a b c d e f Shmueli, Efraim (1990) Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought Cambridge University Press, p. 123, 167-168, 172-174, 177, 261.
  26. ^
    • "Abraham Geiger ... stressed the belief in progress: the Bible and Talmud represent an early, primitive stage in a revelation that is still continuing. Many traditional ceremonies (such as circumcision) are distressing to modern sensibility or incompatible with modern life... Geiger become increasingly convinced of the need to 'dethrone the Talmud'... " - De Lange, Nicholas (2000),An introduction to Judaism, Cambridge University Press, p. 73
    • "According to [Mordecai] Kaplan, the Jewish heritage, including the belief in God, must be reinterpreted so that it will be consistent with the intellectual outlook of the twentieth century. The Torah, which is Jewish civilization in practice, must be given a new functional interpretation." - Scult, Mel (1993) Judaism faces the twentieth century: a biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan, Wayne State University Press, p. 341.
    • "Israel drew within herself, shunned the world, and lived apart. In her seclusion her religion became her all. The interpretation of the Law and the construction put upon the commandments tended toward the upholding of the letter rather than the spirit. ... Reform was born to protect the spirit of the Law, to place the spirit above the letter, to make the latter subservient to the former.... The abolition of those forms and ceremonies that were not conducive to proper living, or that had, by reason of altered environment, become meaningless, was of the highest importance to the spiritual welfare of Israel." - Stern, Myer (1895), The rise and progress of reform Judaism: , Harvard University, p. 5.
  27. ^
    • "Reform Judaism rejected the concept of Divine revelation, and ... the law is considered instructional and inspirational but not binding, ... and by eliminating many ritual practices..." - Dosick, Wayne D. (1995), Living Judaism: the complete guide to Jewish belief, tradition, and practice, HarperCollins, p. 62.
    • "Reform Judaism first took hold in Germany in the early nineteenth century. This tradition asserts that many of the ritualistic practices and dogmas of the past are outmoded..... Reform Jews assumed a prerogative to choose which Biblical laws were worthy of their allegiance and which were not.... Orthodox Jews adhere to a literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible and continue to observe all the traditional Jewish laws... Conservative Jews ... were ... less likely than the Orthodox to accept the infallibility of sacred texts asserting that 'the divine origin of Jewish law ... [was subject] to human development and application'". - Berger, Ronald J. (2002), Fathoming the Holocaust: a social problems approach, Aldine Transaction, p. 179-180.
    • "We hold that all such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet, priestly purity, and dress originated in ages and under the influence of ideas entirely foreign to our present mental and spiritual state. They fail to impress the modern Jew with a spirit of priestly holiness; their observance in our days is apt rather to obstruct than to further modern spiritual elevation." - Pittsburgh Platform, section 4.
    • "...in the view of rabbinical Judaism every command of the written law in the Pentateuch (Torah sh'bikthab), and of the oral law (Torah sh'b'al peh), as codified in the Shulchan Aruk, is equally binding. The ceremonial law has equal potency with the religious and moral commands. Reform Judaism, on the other hand, claims that a distinction must be made between the universal precepts of religion and morality and the enactments arising from the circumstances and conditions of special times and places. Customs and ceremonies must change with the varying needs of different generations. Successive ages have their individual requirements for the satisfaction of the religious nature. No ceremonial law can be eternally binding. " - Philipson, David (1907) The Reform Movement in Judaism, Macmillian (reprinted by University of California, 2007), p. 5-6.
  28. ^
    • ".. the immense authoritarian power of the orthodox Rabbis and Hasidic Zadikkim in the traditionalist communities ... As a result, there was open conflict between the rebellious youth .. and the religious establishment.... This was the context in which a virulent 'anti-clericalism' developed among progressive Jewish intellectuals, leaving countless evidence in the shape of polemical articles, autobiographical works, and imaginative literature." - Lowy, Michael (1992), Redemption and utopia: Jewish libertarian thought in Central Europe : a study in elective affinity, Stanford University Press, p. 45.
    • "[Reform Judaism was] originally founded as a response by Jewish laity to the perceived authoritarian rigidity of traditional or Orthodox Judaism and its rabbis." - Palmer-Fernández, Gabriel (2004), The encyclopedia of religion and war, Routledge, p. 253.
    • "Mosaism and rabbinic Judaism were appropriate for earlier ages, [Kohler] argued. But the age of man's maturity called for freedom from the letter, from blind authority, 'from all restriction which curb the minds and encroach upon the hearts'. The contemporary Jew had 'outgrown the guiding strings ... of infancy'; he was ready to walk on his own. What he required was not law, but a 'living Judaism', both enlightened and pious, appealing to reason and emotion." - Meyer, Michael A. (1995) Response to modernity: a history of the Reform Movement in Judaism, Wayne State University Press, p. 267.
    • "There is a fatal split among Jews, first, because religious tenets and institutions have been kept forcibly on a level of a vanished era, and not permeated with the divine breath of refreshing life, while life itself hurried forward stormily; and secondly, because the religious leaders, lacking all knowledge of the world and of men, dreamed of other times and conditions, and held themselves aloof from the life of the new generation - hence resulted a superficial rationalism, inimical to all positive and historical faith, side by side with a rigid, unreasoning formalism". - Philipson, David (1907) The Reform Movement in Judaism, Macmillian (reprinted by University of California, 2007), (quoting Abraham Kohn, rabbi of Hohemems in Tirol); p. 93-95.
  29. ^
    • "Emancipation implied the breakdown of the Jews' millennial social and cultural isolation ... It was said for the first time in European history the Jews could participate in non-Jewish culture without the stigma of apostacy". Mendes-Flohr, Paul R. (1995). The Jew in the modern world: a documentary history. Oxford University Press US,. p. 155. ISBN 019507453X,. 
    • "Sociologically, the way of life of halakhic Judaism vouchsafed Jewry to an unambiguously distinct ... identity - an identity that was the source of a profound discomfort to those Jews who sought cultural, social, and political integration in the Gentile community in which they lived." - The Jew in the modern world: a documentary history Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (Ed.), p. 156
  30. ^
    • " We recognize, in the modern era of universal culture of heart and intellect, the approaching of the realization of Israels great Messianic hope for the establishment of the kingdom of truth, justice, and peace among all men. We consider ourselves no longer a nation, but a religious community, and therefore expect neither a return to Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the sons of Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws concerning the Jewish state." - Pittsburgh Platform
  31. ^ a b Fighting the War and the Peace: Battlefield Ethics, Peace Talks, Treaties, and Pacifism in the Jewish Tradition. Michael J. Broyde, 1998, p. 1
  32. ^ a b *Reuven Firestone (2004), "Judaism on Violence and Reconciliation: An examination of key sources" in Beyond violence: religious sources of social transformation in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Fordham Univ Press, 2004, pp 77, 81.
    • Goldsmith (Ed.), Emanuel S. (1991). Dynamic Judaism: the essential writings of Mordecai M. Kaplan. Fordham Univ Press. p. 181. ISBN 0823213102. 
    • Spero, Shubert (1983). Morality, halakha, and the Jewish tradition. KTAV Publishing House, Inc.. pp. 137–318. ISBN 0870687271. 
  33. ^ Carl. S. Ehrlich (1999) "Joshua, Judaism, and Genocide", in Jewish Studies at the Turn of the Twentieth Century, Judit Targarona Borrás, Ángel Sáenz-Badillos (Eds). 1999, Brill. p 117-124.
  34. ^ A. G. Hunter "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination", in Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post biblical vocabularies of violence, Jonneke Bekkenkamp, Yvonne Sherwood (Eds.). 2003, Continuum Internatio Publishing Group, pp 92-108
  35. ^ Horowitz, Elliott S. (2006). Reckless rites: Purim and the legacy of Jewish violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3, 107–146, 187–212, 213–247. ISBN 0691124914. 
  36. ^ Lustick, Ian (1988). For the land and the Lord: Jewish fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. pp. 131–132. ISBN 0876090366. 
    • Armstrong, Karen (2007). The Bible: a biography. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 211–216. ISBN 0871139693. 
  37. ^ a b Weiss, Steven I. (2010-02-26). "The Ghosts of Purim Past: The holiday's violent beginnings—and what they mean for the Jewish future". http://www.slate.com/id/2246139. 
  38. ^ a b "Violence and Vengeance: Purim and Good Friday". Dialogika (Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations). 1998-03-28. http://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/educational-and-liturgical-materials/liturgical-resources/lent-easter/787-langer08mar22. 
  39. ^ http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Issues/War_and_Peace/Combat_and_Conflict/Ethics_of_Jewish_War.shtml The Ethics of Jewish War ], By Dr. Michael Walzer
  40. ^ Lustick For The Land and The Lord: The Evolution of Gush Emunim, by Ian S. Lustick
  41. ^
  42. ^
  43. ^
  44. ^
  45. ^
    • Fraade, Steven D. (1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity",. NYU Press. pp. 145–165. ISBN 0814779905. 
    • David Novak (1979) "Noahide Law: A Foundation for Jewish Philosophy (Elimination of the double standard)" in Tradition in the public square: a David Novak reader, (2008) Randi Rashkover (Ed.). p. 132-136, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
  46. ^ Babylonian Talmud, in Tractate Avodah Zarah 26b, as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228. See also Avodah Zarah 26a.
  47. ^ Maimonides, in his "Mishneh Torah", as quoted by Arthur Segal, in "A Spiritual and Ethical Compendium to the Torah and Talmud", 2009, p. 228
  48. ^ Tomson, Peter J. (1990). Paul and the Jewish law: halakha in the Letters of the Apostle to the Gentiles. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. pp. 151–163. ISBN 9023224906. 
  49. ^ Schwarz, Sidney (2008). Judaism and Justice: The Jewish Passion to Repair the World. Jewish Lights Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 1580233538. 
  50. ^ 8 saved during "Shabbat from hell" (January 17, 2010) in Israel 21c Innovation News Service Retrieved 2010–01–18
  51. ^ ZAKA rescuemission to Haiti 'proudly desecrating Shabbat' Religious rescue team holds Shabbat prayer with members of international missions in Port au-Prince. Retrieved 2010–01–22
  52. ^ Goldschneider, Calvin (2002). Israel's changing society: population, ethnicity, and development. Westview Press. p. 170. 
  53. ^ Plaskow, Judith (2005). The coming of Lilith. Beacon Press. pp. 147–148. 
    The author writes "The existence of agunah is a crime against women, a disgrace to the Jewish community, and a violation of human rights that demands immediate remedy. It is also a symptom of the systemic exclusion of women from power and authority in traditional Judaism. .. women's powerlessness is further magnified by a larger religious system that is also entirely under male control.... In cases where a woman's husband refuses her a 'get', she can find herself in a nightmare realm, bargaining away her means of survival and occasionally even custody of her children. .. the persistent exploitation of the inequalities of Jewish divorce law is also a more deliberate attempt to curtail women's power in a time of social change... elements within the Orthodox community are using the fundamental inequity of Jewish law to ensure women's powerlessness and to reinforce the status quo."
  54. ^ a b Haviva Ner-David (2009) "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future,p 312-313. Jewish Lights Publishing.
  55. ^
    • Zola, Gary Phillip (Ed.) (1996). Women rabbis: exploration & celebration. Hebrew Union College Press. pp. 2–4. 
    • Nadell, Pamela S. (1999). Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889-1985. Beacon Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 0807036498. 
  56. ^ a b
    • Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE. p. 84. 
    • Katharina von Kellenbach (2001). "Overcoming the teaching of contempt". In Athalya Brenner (Ed.), A feminist companion to reading the Bible: approaches, methods and strategies, pp 190-202. Taylor & Francis.
  57. ^ Vidal, Gore (2009). Selected Essays of Gore Vidal. Random House, Inc.. p. 410. ISBN 0307388689. 
  58. ^ Graetz, Naomi (2005). Unlocking the garden: a feminist Jewish look at the Bible, midrash and God. Gorgias Press. p. 15. ISBN 1593330588. 
    Quoting from Frymer-Kensky, Tikva (2006). Studies in Bible and feminist criticism. Jewish Publication Society. p. 161. 
  59. ^ a b Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, pp.201-222, 204. UPNE.
  60. ^
    • Kaye, Evelyn (1987). The hole in the sheet: a modern woman looks at Orthodox and Hasidic Judaism. L. Stuart. p. 147. 
    This book quotes Rabbi Laura Geller: "Menstrual taboos are responsible for real damage to Jewish women's views of themselves and their bodies. I have met many women who learned nothing about the Torah except that they could not touch the Torah because they menstruate. . . . Their sense of themselves as 'inferior' Jews has already permeated their relationship to tradition and their own bodies."
  61. ^
  62. ^ Persecution of Christians:
    • Hare, Wayne D. (2005). The Theme of Jewish Persecution of Christians in the Gospel According to St Matthew. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052102045X. 
    • Judith M. Lieu (1998), "Accusations of Jewish persecution in early Christian sources", in Tolerance and intolerance in early Judaism and Christianity, Graham Stanton, Guy G. Stroumsa (Eds), Cambridge University Press, pp. 279-295.
    • E. P. Sanders (1999), "Reflections on Anti-Judaism in the New Testament and in Christianity", in Anti-Judaism and the Gospels William Reuben Farmer (Ed.), Continuum International Publishing Group, p. 272-276.
    • Klinghoffer, David (2006). Why the Jews Rejected Jesus: The Turning Point in Western History. Random House, Inc.. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0385510225. 
    • For a very early example, see the claim that "Jews killed Jesus", initially stated by Paul in the New Testament (1 Thes. 2:14-15).
    • Theissen, Gerd (1998). The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. p. 440. ISBN 0800631226. 
  63. ^ a b The Jew in the medieval book: English antisemitism, 1350-1500 by Anthony Paul Bale, Cambridge University Press, 2006, page 33.
  64. ^ a b c From rebel to rabbi: reclaiming Jesus and the making of modern Jewish culture, by Matthew B. Hoffman, Stanford University Press, 2007, pages 4-5
  65. ^ a b Jesus in the Talmud by Peter Schäfer, Princeton University Press, 2007, p 13, 85-92, 98–100, 113, 174.
  66. ^
    • Jewish history and Jewish memory: essays in honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi by Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, UPNE, 1998, page 33.
    • Why the Jews Rejected Jesus: The Turning Point in Western History by David Klinghoffer, Random House, Inc., 2006, page 154 (identifies source of criticism as King Louis IX).
    • Tolerance and intolerance in early Judaism and Christianity by Graham Stanton, Guy G. Stroumsa, Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 247 (also includes a discussion of the censorship that removed references to Jesus - see footnote #34 on page 256; includes the assertion that "Balaam" is one of the names used instead of Jesus/Yeshua).
    • Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians, by Israel Jacob Yuval, University of California Press, 2008, page 132.
    • Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence by Robert E. Van Voorst, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, page 110 (also discusses use of name Balaam in lieu of Jesus/Yeshua).
    • Church, State, and Jew in the Middle Ages by Robert Chazan,Behrman House, Inc, 1979, page 227-230 (transcript of 1240 Paris disputation).
    • A history of the Jews by Paul Johnson, HarperCollins, 1988, page 217 (identifies critic as Nicholas Donin).
    • Rabbi Moses ha-Kohen of Tordesillas and his book Ezer ha-emunah, by Yehuda Shamir, BRILL, 1975, page 31-32 (identifies Pope Gregory IX as a critic).
  67. ^ Seidman, Naomi (2006). Faithful renderings: Jewish-Christian difference and the politics of translation. University of Chicago Press. p. 139. ISBN 0226745066,. 
  68. ^ a b David Berger, 1998, "On the Uses of History in Medieval Jewish Polemic Against Christianity", in Jewish history and Jewish memory Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed.), UPNE, pp. 32-33
  69. ^
    • Waldau, Paul (2006). A communion of subjects: animals in religion, science, and ethics. Columbia University Press. pp. 86. ISBN 0231136420. 
    • Waldman, Shmuel (2005). Beyond a Reasonable Doubt. Feldheim Publishers. pp. 243. ISBN 1583308067. 
    • Gilman, Sander L. (2006). Multiculturalism and the Jews. CRC Press. pp. 94–97. ISBN 0415979188. 
    • Schwartz, Richard H. (2001). Judaism and vegetarianism. Lantern Books. pp. 133–134. ISBN 1930051247. 
    • Kalechofsky, Roberta (1992). Judaism and animal rights: classical and contemporary responses. Micah Publications. ISBN 0916288358. 
    • Norman Solomon, "Judaism" in The animal ethics reader (Eds. Susan Jean Armstrong, Richard George Botzler); Routledge, 2003, pages 222-223.
  70. ^ Jakobovits, Sir Immanuel (1995). Dear Chief Rabbi: from the correspondence of Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits on matters of Jewish law, ethics, and contemporary issues, 1980-1990 ("Shechitah and Cruelty to Animals" chapter). KTAV Publishing House, Inc.. pp. 63–65. ISBN 0881254711. 
  71. ^
    • Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why aren't Jewish women circumcised?: gender and covenant in Judaism. University of California Press. pp. 207–224. ISBN 0520212509. 
    • Glick, Leonard B. (2005). Marked in your flesh: circumcision from ancient Judea to modern America. Oxford University Press. pp. 115–148. ISBN 019517674X. 
    • Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003). The covenant of circumcision: new perspectives on an ancient Jewish rite. UPNE. pp. 157–160. ISBN 1584653078. 
    See also Tabory and Erez, "Circumscribed Circumcision", pages 161-167, in this book.
    • Silverman, Eric Kline (2006). From Abraham to America: a history of Jewish circumcision. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 177–212. ISBN 0742516695. 
  72. ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). "Jewish "intactivists" in U.S. stop circumcising". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN22970720071003?pageNumber=1. Retrieved 2007-11-03. 
  73. ^ Goldman, PhD, Ron (2006). "Providers of Brit Shalom". Jews Against Circumcision. http://www.jewsagainstcircumcision.org/brisshalom.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-03. 

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