Roman Catholic Church
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Pope - Pope Benedict XVI |
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History • Christianity |
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Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) |
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Catholic Liturgy |
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Ecumenism • Monasticism |
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The Roman Catholic Church, officially known as the Catholic Church,[1][2] is the world's largest Christian church representing over half of all Christians and one-sixth of the world's population.[3][4] It is made up of one Western church (the Latin Rite) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world. The Church looks to the Pope, currently Benedict XVI, as its highest human authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.[5] The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the laity. Some religious communities allow lay members or associates like the Dominicans, Carmelites, Franciscans, Salesians and many others.[6]
The Catholic Church defines its mission as spreading the message of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity.[7] In carrying out its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas Internationalis and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly and the sick.[8]
Through apostolic succession, the Church and many historians believe it to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus in his consecration of Saint Peter.[9][10][11] The Church has defined its doctrines through various ecumenical councils, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem.[12][13] On the basis of promises that Jesus made to his apostles, it believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error .[14][15][16] Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[17] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy, which is regulated by Church authority. The Eucharist, one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every Catholic Mass, is the center of Catholic worship.
With a nearly two thousand year history, the Church is the world's oldest and largest institution.[18] From at least the 4th century, it has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilization.[19] In the 11th century, the Eastern, Orthodox Church and the Western, Catholic Church split, largely over disagreements regarding papal primacy. Eastern churches, which maintained or later re-established communion with Rome, form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.
The Catholic Church maintains that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus, but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation.[20] The Church teaches that it is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians—a movement known as ecumenism.[21] Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of secularism and opposition to its pro-life stance on abortion, contraception and euthanasia.[22]
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[edit] Origin and mission
- See also: History of the Roman Catholic Church and History of the Papacy
The Catholic Church traces its foundation to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. It sees the bishops of the Church as the successors of the apostles and the pope in particular as the successor of Peter, the leader of the apostles.[23][24] Catholics cite Jesus' words in the Gospel of Matthew to support this view: "... you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church ... I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."[5][25][15] According to Catholic belief, the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles in an event known by Christians as Pentecost brought this promised "church" fully into the world.[24]
Some scholars agree that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus and that the historical record confirms that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from its beginning.[11][9] Some cite a letter from Pope Clement I to the church in Corinth (c. 95) as evidence of a presiding Roman cleric who exercised authority over other churches.[26] Others acknowledge the existence of a Christian community in Rome and that Peter and Paul "lived, preached and died" there[27] but aren't certain that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century, and question the concept of apostolic succession.[28]
The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:[11] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".[29][30][31] Pope Benedict XVI summarized this mission as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity.[32] As part of its ministry of charity the Church runs Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Caritas Internationalis, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized.[8]
[edit] Beliefs
- See also: Roman Catholic theology
As a trinitarian Christian church, Roman Catholicism holds that there is one eternal God who exists as a mutual indwelling of three persons: the Father; the Son, Jesus; and the Holy Spirit. Catholic beliefs are summarized in the Nicene Creed[33] and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[17][34] The Nicene Creed is recited at all Catholic Sunday Masses, and also forms the central statement of belief of other Christian denominations.[33][35] Chief among these are Eastern Orthodox Christians, whose beliefs are quite similar to those of Catholics, differing from them mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary.[36][37] Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but generally differ from Catholics regarding the pope, church tradition, the Eucharist and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.[38] The five solas, composed by Martin Luther in the 16th century, were one attempt to express these differences.[39]
Over the centuries, Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified by councils of the Church convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.[13] The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem, was convened by the apostles around the year 50;[12] the most recent was the Second Vatican Council, which closed in 1965.[40]
[edit] Teaching authority, seven sacraments, different rites
Jesus made the following promises to his apostles: "the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against [the church]",[15] and, "... when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will teach you all truth.".[41] Based on these promises, the Church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error.[42][5] The Catholic Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition and the Magisterium. Sacred scripture or the Catholic Bible consists of the Greek version of the Old Testament—known as the Septuagint[43]—and the 27 New Testament writings found in the Codex Vaticanus and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.[44] These scriptures are essentially the same for most Christians with minor variations between Catholics and Protestants.[43] Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[42] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith". These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium, or the teaching authority of the Church, and which includes infallible pronouncements of the pope,[45] pronouncements of ecumenical councils, and those of the college of bishops acting in union with the pope to define truths or to condemn interpretations of scripture believed to be false.[45]
According to the Catechism, Jesus instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.[46] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are important visible rituals which Catholics see as effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[47][48] Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the worldwide Church. These reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than a diversity in beliefs.[49] The most commonly used is the Western or Latin rite. Others are the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic rite, the Syriac, Armenian, Maronite and Chaldean rites.
[edit] God the Father, original sin and Baptism
- See also: Original sin
God is the source and creator of nature and all that exists, according to Catholic belief.[50] This is expressed in the opening statement of the Nicene Creed: "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen ...". The Church perceives God as a loving and caring entity who is directly involved in the world and in people's lives[51] and who desires his creatures to love him and to love each other.[52][53] According to Catholic theology, while mankind lives bodily in a visible, material world, his soul simultaneously occupies an invisible, spiritual world.[54] Scriptural authority says God made purely spiritual beings called angels who "worship and serve God by ministering to men."[54] When some of them chose to rebel against God's will they became demons, or evil spirits who seek to harm humans by tempting them to sin.[55] The leader of this rebellion has been called "Lucifer", "Satan" and the devil among other names. The sin of pride, considered one of seven deadly sins, is attributed to Satan for wishing to be equal to God.[56] A fallen angel is believed to have tempted the first humans, whose act of original sin brought suffering and death into the world. This event is known as the Fall of Man and according to Catholic belief, left humanity isolated from their original state of intimacy with God.[57][58] The Catechism states that the description of the fall described in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms "... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man" and resulted in "a deprivation of original holiness and justice" that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin".[55] While Catholic doctrine accepts the possibility of God's creation to have occured in a way consistent with the Theory of Evolution, it rejects as unscientific, efforts to use the theory to deny supernatural divine design.[59]
The Church believes that people can be cleansed of original sin and all personal sins through Baptism.[60] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.[60]
[edit] Jesus, sin and Penance
- See also: Jesus, sin, Penance, and Confession
Christians believe that in the messianic texts of Old Testament, God promised to send his people a savior.[61] This savior is believed to be Jesus. The Nicene Creed states that he is "... the only begotten son of God, ... one in being with the Father. Through him all things were made ...". In an event known as the Incarnation, the Church teaches that God descended from heaven for the salvation of humanity, became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named Mary. It is believed that Jesus' mission on earth included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four Gospels.[62] Catholicism teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to become closer to him, and therefore to grow in true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.[63][64] Sinning is considered the opposite to following Jesus, robbing people of their resemblance to God and turning their souls away from his love[65] Examples of sin include failure to obey the Ten Commandments, failing to love God, or failing to love other people. Sins range from the less serious venial sins, to more serious mortal sins which end a person's relationship with God.[66][65]
Through the passion of Jesus and his crucifixion, the Church teaches that all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.[61][67] John the Baptist, respected by the Church as a prophet, called Jesus "the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world"[68] in reference to the ancient Jewish practice of offering sacrificial lambs to God to obtain some greater good. By reconciling with God and following Jesus' words and deeds, the Church believes one can enter the Kingdom of God which is not a place but a state of being defined by the Church as "... the reign of God over people's hearts and lives."[69][70]
After a person has been Baptised, the sacrament of Penance (Confession) is the means by which Catholics believe they can obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. Catholics believe Jesus gave the apostles special authority to forgive sins in God's name based on his words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.[71] A penitent confesses his sins to the priest, who may then offer advice. After the priest has imposed a particular penance to be performed, the penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.[72] He is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the seal of confession. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can licitly receive the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[73][74]
[edit] Holy Spirit and Confirmation
Jesus told his apostles that after his death and resurrection he would send them the "Advocate", the "Holy Spirit", who " ...will teach you everything and remind you of all that (I) told you".[75][76] In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus told his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"[77]
The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son. Thus the Church teaches that receiving the Holy Spirit is an act of receiving God.[78] Through the sacrament of Confirmation, Catholics ask for and believe they receive the Holy Spirit. Confirmation is sometimes called the "sacrament of Christian maturity" and is believed to increase and deepen the grace received at Baptism.[77] Spiritual graces or gifts of the Holy Spirit may include the wisdom to see and follow God's plan, as well as judgment, love, courage, knowledge, reverence and rejoicing in the presence of God.[79] The corresponding fruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control.[79]
To be licitly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, in that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or godparent for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.[77] Baptism in the Eastern rites, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.[80]
[edit] Nature of the Church and social teaching
- See also: Catholic social teaching
Catholic belief holds that the Church " ...is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth."[81] Jesus told his disciples to "Remain in me, as I remain in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches."[82] In Catholic interpretation, the term "Church" refers to the people of God, who abide in Jesus and who, " ...nourished with the Body of Christ, become the Body of Christ."[83] Catholic teaching maintains that the Church exists simultaneously on earth (Church militant), in purgatory (Church suffering), and in heaven (Church triumphant); thus Mary and all other saints are alive and part of the living Church.[84] This unity of the Church in heaven and on earth is the "Communion of Saints".[85][86]
While the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus,[87] it also holds that the Holy Spirit can work through other churches to bring people to salvation.[24] In its apostolic constitution Lumen Gentium, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in diverse Christian churches and communities, and that Catholics are called to work for unity among all Christians.[88]
The Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world but teaches that individual Catholics are required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy as well. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it and pray for the living and the dead.[8] In conjunction with the work of mercy to visit the sick, the Church offers the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, performed only by a priest who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.[89]
Church teaching on works of mercy and the new social problems of the industrial era led to the development of Catholic social teaching. Emphasizing human dignity, it criticizes elements of both capitalism and socialism[90][91] and commits Catholics to the welfare of others.[8]
[edit] Final judgment and afterlife
Belief in an afterlife is central to Catholic teaching. "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come," is the final statement of the Nicene Creed. The Church teaches that the soul of each individual will be judged by Jesus immediately after death and receive a particular judgment based on the deeds of that person's earthly life.[92] Chapter 25:35–46 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind.[8][93] The Church teaches that this final judgment will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[94]
There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.[92] Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.[92] Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[95] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God and his love.[92] He predestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.[92] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved "like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus".[92][96]
[edit] Prayer and worship
Catholic liturgy is regulated by Church authority[97] and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. At a minimum, the Catechism requires every Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of fasting and of abstinence as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.[98] While all Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church, individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.[99] Frequent reception of the Eucharist as often as daily and confession of sins as often as once a month are common Catholic practice encouraged by the Church and the various religious orders.
[edit] Eucharist
The Eucharist (Holy Communion), is celebrated at each Mass and is the center of Catholic worship[100][101] The words of institution for this sacrament are found in the three synoptic Gospels of Matthew,[102] Mark,[103] and Luke,[104] as well as in I Corinthians;[105] "Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me.' "[106] "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, 'Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.' "[107] The Church teaches that the Old Testament promise of God's salvation for all peoples was fulfilled when Jesus established a New Covenant with humanity through the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper - a covenant then consummated with his sacrifice on the cross. Catholicism teaches that just as God's first covenant or solemn agreement with Moses and the Hebrew people was sealed with the blood of sacrificial animals, his new covenant with humanity was sealed with the blood of Jesus.[108] It believes that the bread and wine brought to the altar at each Mass are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ (termed transubstantiation) and that by consuming these, believers are spiritually nourished and deepen their union with Jesus, are helped to overcome and avoid sin, cleansed of venial sins, unite with the poor and promote Christian unity.[108][109]
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The most common celebration of the Eucharist, the Latin rite or ordinary form, is separated into two parts, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.[110] and generally last from a half hour for a daily Mass to just over an hour for a Sunday Mass. According to professor Alan Schreck, in its main elements and prayers, the Catholic Mass celebrated today "bears striking resemblance" to the form of the Mass described in the Didache and First Apology of Justin Martyr in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries.[111][112] The celebration of the Eucharist in the Eastern Catholic Churches is termed Divine Liturgy. Variations exist in this liturgy between the different Eastern Churches that reflect different cultural traditions.
An alternate or extraordinary form of Mass, called the Tridentine Mass, is celebrated primarily in Latin. Originating after the Council of Trent, it reaffirms that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Jesus' death as the one he suffered on Calvary, which is in opposition to Protestant belief.[113] Although this form was superseded by the ordinary as the primary form after the Second Vatican Council, it continued to be offered by an indult since Pope John Paul II's 1988 motu proprio, Ecclesia Dei[114] and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio, Summorum Pontificum.[115]
Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[116] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the Mass are specified and Catholics must abstain from eating for one hour before receiving Communion.[117] Those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.[117] Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.[118] Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they freely ask for them, truly believe what the Catholic Church teaches regarding the sacraments, and have the proper disposition to receive them.[118] Catholics may not receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.[119]
[edit] Liturgy of the Hours and the liturgical year
- See also: Liturgy of the Hours
In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always".[120] The Liturgy of the Hours, or Divine Office, is the Church's effort to respond to this request. It is considered to be an extension of the celebration of the Mass and is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.[121] It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.[121] It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church that has been called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.[122] Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.[121][123]
The liturgical year is the annual calendar of the Catholic Church. The Church sets aside certain days and seasons of each year to recall and celebrate various events in the life of Christ. The Byzantine liturgical year, like the former imperial calendar, starts on 1 September, while in the Western Church the liturgical year begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time. Christmastide follows, beginning on the night of 24 December (Christmas Eve), and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus. Lent is the period of purification and penance that in the Latin church begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday. (In the Byzantine Catholic churches, "Great Lent" begins on Clean Monday and, counting the Sundays as part of the forty days of Lent, ends on Lazarus Saturday, being followed immediately by Great and Holy Week.) The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection. The seven-week liturgical season of Easter immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at Pentecost. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.[124]
[edit] Devotional life, prayer, Mary and the saints
- See also: Catholic spirituality and Marian doctrines of the Catholic Church
In addition to the Mass, the Catholic Church considers prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and one of the principal ways its members nourish a relationship with God.[125] The Catechism identifies three types of prayer: vocal prayer (sung or spoken), meditation and contemplative prayer. Quoting from the early church father John Chrysostom regarding vocal prayer, the Catechism states, "Whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls."[126] Meditation is prayer in which the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking."[126] Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.[126] Three of the most common devotional prayers of the Catholic Church are The Lord's Prayer, the Rosary and Stations of the Cross.[127] These prayers are most often vocal, yet always meditative and contemplative. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer, whereas Benediction is a common vocal method of prayer. Lectio divina, which means "sacred reading", is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop into habitual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals, the Rosary, or the Liturgy of the Hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.[126]
Prayers and devotions to the Virgin Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the worship of God.[128] Explaining the intercession of saints, the Catechism states that the saints "... do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."[86][128] The Church holds Mary, as ever Virgin and Mother of God". in special regard. She is believed to have been conceived without original sin, and was assumed into heaven. These dogmas, focus of Roman Catholic Mariology, are considered infallible. She is honored with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church, because by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.[129] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[127] Pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as Lourdes and Fátima are popular devotions. The Church celebrates several liturgical Marian feasts throughout the Church Year.[130]
[edit] Church organization and community
Although the Church considers Jesus to be its ultimate spiritual head, as an earthly organization its spiritual head and leader is the pope.[131] The pope governs from Vatican City in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the civil head of state.[132] Each pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals, a body composed of bishops and priests who have been granted the status of Cardinal by previous popes. The cardinals, who also serve as papal advisors, may select any male member of the Church to reign as pope, but if not already ordained as a bishop, such ordination must occur before the candidate can take papal office.[133] The pope is assisted in the administration of the Church by the Roman Curia, or civil service. The Church community is governed according to formal regulations set out in the Code of Canon Law. The official language of the Church is Latin, however Italian is the working language of the Vatican administration.[134]
Worldwide, the Catholic Church comprises a Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. The Latin Church divides into jurisdictional areas known as dioceses, or eparchies in the Eastern Church. Each is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch, appointed by the pope. By 2007, including both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 sees.[135] Each diocese is divided into individual communities called parishes, which are staffed by one or more priests.[136] The community is made up of ordained members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as nuns, friars and monks are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.[137]
[edit] Ordained members and Holy Orders
- See also: Catholic Church hierarchy, College of Bishops, Priesthood (Catholic Church), and Deacon
Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.[138][139] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).[140] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.[141]
Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[142][143] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes exempted from this rule.[144] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.[145][146] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition where marriage is not allowed after ordination. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.[147] The Church tradition of abstinence traces its beginnings to both Jesus, who encouraged his apostles to be celibate if they were able to do so, and to St. Paul, who wrote of the advantages celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord.[148] Thus, from the Church's beginnings, clerical celibacy was "held in high esteem" and is considered a kind of spiritual marriage with Christ, a concept further popularized by the early Christian theologian Origen.[149] Clerical celibacy began to be enforced in papal decretals beginning with Pope Siricius (d. 399).[149] In 1074, mandatory celibacy of the clergy became canon law as part of pope Gregory VII's effort to eliminate several forms of medieval church corruption.[150]
All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.[151] They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.[152] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.[153] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.[140]
Since the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.[154] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,[155] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.[156] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.[157] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VI's statement "If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities".[157]
[edit] Marriage for Lay members
- See also: Laity
The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being important to enable the body to function.[6] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.[158] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.[140] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.[159] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be granted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.[160] Natural family planning is approved.[161]
Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.[162] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.[162] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.[163] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.[164]
[edit] Religious orders
Both the ordained and the laity may enter the religious or consecrated life—either as monks or nuns if cloistered, or friars and sisters if not. A candidate takes vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[165]
The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join one of the religious institutes which are also referred to as monastic or religious orders. They follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.[166][167] They usually live together in a community but individuals may be given permission to live as hermits, or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.[168] Examples of religious institutes include the Sisters of Charity, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Cistercians, Marist Brothers, Paulist Fathers and the Society of Jesus, but there are many others.[165] Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.[162] Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in a religious community. The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, societies of apostolic life and consecrated widows and widowers.[165] It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.[169]
[edit] Membership
Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through Baptism.[170] For those baptized as children, First Communion is a particular rite of passage when, following instruction, they are allowed to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist for the first time. Christians baptized outside of the Catholic Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults.[171][172] In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the sacraments of initiation at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.[171]
A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated by committing particularly grave sins.[173][174] Examples include violating the seal of confession (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate or having an abortion.[175] Throwing away or retaining for a sacrilegious purpose consecrated sacramental bread or wine received during the Eucharist is considered an excommunicable offense.[176] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.[177]
[edit] Catholic institutions, personnel and demographics
- Further information: Roman Catholicism by country
In 2000, worldwide Catholic institutions totalled 408,637 parishes and missions, 125,016 primary and secondary schools, 1,046 universities, 5,853 hospitals, 8,695 orphanages, 13,933 homes for the elderly and handicapped and 74,936 dispensaries, leprosaries, nurseries and other institutions.[178] Many of these institutions are at least partially staffed by religious sisters who comprise nearly two thirds of all Church personnel.[179] Worldwide, as of 2000, there were 769,142 religious sisters, 55,057 religious brothers, 405,178 diocesan and religious priests, 3,475 bishops, 914 archbishops, 183 cardinals, 27,824 permanent deacons and 110,583 diocesan and religious seminarians (men studying for the priesthood).[179][180]
Church membership in 2007 was 1.131 billion people;[181] a substantial increase over the 1970 figure of 654 million.[182] It is the largest Christian church encompassing over half of all Christians, one sixth of the world's population and is the largest organized body of any world religion,[4][183] and known for its ability to use its transnational ties and organizational strength to bring significant resources to needy situations.[184] Although the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,[185] membership is growing particularly in Africa and Asia.[3]
Some parts of Europe and the Americas have experienced a shortage of priests in recent years as the number of priests has not increased in proportion to the number of Catholics.[186] The Latin American Church, known for its large parishes where the parishioner to priest ratio is the highest in the world, considers this to be a contributing factor in the rise of pentecostal and evangelical Christian denominations in the region.[187] Secularism has seen a steady rise in Europe yet the Catholic presence there remains strong as evidenced by a large presence of Catholic institutions and personnel.[187]
With a high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else.[188] Challenges faced include suppression of non-Islamic religious practices by Muslims in Sudan and a high rate of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa where the Church participates in efforts to help patients and reduce the spread of disease.[189] Africa has three Catholic primary and secondary schools for every one parish reflecting the greater need for basic education there.[190]
The Church in Asia is a significant minority among other religions yet its vibrance is evidenced by the large proportion of women religious, priests and parishes to total Catholic population.[187] From 1975-2000, total Asian population grew by 61% with an Asian Catholic population increase of 104%.[191] Challenges faced include oppression by communist countries like North Korea where it is forbidden, and China where all seminaries were closed and all priests expelled under the regime of Mao Zedong during the 1950s.[192]
Oceania is overwhelmingly Christian with Catholic the majority denomination. There, the Church faces challenges in reaching indigenous populations where over 715 different languages are spoken.[187] Of the 1.5 billion worldwide Catholics, 12% reside in Africa, 50% in the American continent, 10% are in Asia, 27% in Europe and 1% live in Oceania.[193]
[edit] Cultural influence
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The cultural influence of the Catholic Church has been vast, particularly upon western society. The most significant cultural influence was its role in the spread of the Christian religion throughout the world, a process that ended practices like human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy in Christian lands.[195][196] Historians note that Catholic missionaries, popes, laymen and religious were among the leaders in the campaign against slavery, an institution that has existed in almost every worldwide culture.[197][198] Christianity improved the status of women by condemning female infanticide (as well as all other forms), divorce, incest, polygamy and marital infidelity of both men and women.[199][196]
The Church has frequently been criticized for the house arrest of Galileo over the geocentrism controversy of the 1600s. However historians of science, including non-Catholics such as J.L. Heilbron,[200] A.C. Crombie, David Lindberg,[201] and Thomas Goldstein,[202] have argued that the Church had a significant, positive influence on the development of civilization. In contrast to scholars such as Ramsay MacMullen, who take a negative view with respect to the loss of ancient literature with the rise of Christianity[203], they hold that, not only did monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions of Europe, but that the Church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of universities and Catholic schools throughout the world. Catholic schools comprise the world's largest non-governmental school system, educating over 50 million children of all incomes on every continent.[204] Catholic hospitals, missions and orphanages have likewise catered to significant populations of the world's poor.
The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, at least up to the Protestant Reformation, with its consistent opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm and the creation of the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance styles being especially important. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.[205] Catholic monks developed the first forms of musical notation, and consequently an enormous body of religious music has been composed for the Catholic Church through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of the European tradition of classical music, and all its derivatives. The Church is also credited with the development of Romanesque and Gothic architecture.[206] The Baroque style in art, music and architecture was also encouraged by the Church as a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.[207]
In March 2000 Pope John Paul II prayed publicly for forgiveness for sins committed by Christians with regard to the rights of peoples, cultures and religions as well as sins against the dignity of women and the unity of the human race.[208]
[edit] History
- See also: History of the Roman Catholic Church
- Further information: History of Christianity, History of Western civilization, and Criticism of the Catholic Church
- See also: Role of the Roman Catholic Church in civilization
[edit] Roman Empire
The Catholic Church considers that it began on Pentecost when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.[209][210] According to historians, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities,[209][211][212] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.[211][212] At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship[213] because it was revered as the day of Jesus' Resurrection.[214] From as early as the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[11][215][216]
The apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to reconcile differences concerning the evangelization of Gentiles.[12] Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, there was broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[217] From the year 100 onward, teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to Gnosticism.[218] The Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.[13] In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo.[219]
Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to persecution.[220] This began under Nero in the first century and culminated in the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[221] In spite of these persecutions Christianity continued to spread and was eventually legalized in 313 under Constantine I's Edict of Milan.[222]
In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the threat of Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief.[223] Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.[224] By this time, the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar had been established.[225] By 380, Christianity was the official religion of the Empire.[226] In subsequent decades a series of Ecumenical councils codified critical elements of the Church's theology. The Council of Rome in 382 listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament and in 391 this Biblical canon, was translated into the common language of Latin creating the Vulgate.[227] The Councils of Ephesus in 431, and Chalcedon two decades later, clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation.[228][229] These definitions sparked Monophysite disagreements which led to the first of the Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church.[13]
[edit] Early Middle Ages
- Further information: Middle Ages and Christian monasticism
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arianism for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.[230] The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, marked the beginning of a steady rise of the Catholic faith in the West.[231]
In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his monastic Rule, which became a blueprint for the organization of monasteries throughout Europe.[232] The new monasteries preserved classical craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. As well as providing a focus for spiritual life, they functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers, particularly in remote regions, becoming major conduits of civilization.[233] From 590 Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed church practice and administration, launching renewed missionary efforts.[234] As the Visigoths and Lombards moved from Arianism toward Catholicism,[231] missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Boniface, Willibrord and Ansgar took Catholic Christianity to the Germanic, Irish and Slavic peoples of northern Europe. Later missions reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians.[235]
In the early 700s, under the direction of the Eastern, Byzantine emperors, iconoclasts ordered the destruction of all religious images. Iconodules supported by the pope and the Western Church were strongly opposed to this.[236][237] The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favor of icons.[238] In 800, continuing disagreements with the east culminated when the pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in the west. Charlemagne attempted to unify Western Europe through the common bond of Christianity, creating an improved system of education and establishing unified laws. However imperial interest created a problem for the church as succeeding emperors sought to impose increasingly tight control over the popes.[239][240] Disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again in 858, when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, favored by the pope, was deposed for the more extreme Photios.[241] The pope declared the election of Photios invalid and excommunicated him. The consequent long-running dispute added to the growing alienation between the churches.[236][242]
After a dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily, the two Churches mutually excommunicated each other in 1054, resulting in the East-West Schism.[243] The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church.[244][245] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism.[246] Some Eastern churches have subsequently reunited with the Catholic Church.[245][247] In spite of attempts at reunification, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.[248]
[edit] High Middle Ages
- Further information: High Middle Ages
The Cluniac reform of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.[249] Monasteries introduced new crops, developed technologies such as metallurgy, and fostered the creation and preservation of literature. They could also function as credit establishments promoting economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.[250][251] After 1100, some cathedral schools split into lower, grammar, schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, some of these higher schools developed into universities, the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.[252] Notable theologians such as Thomas Aquinas worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.[253] His Summa Theologica was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Christianity.[253]
In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against Muslim invasions.[254] Urban launched the First Crusade, hoping to bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity.[255][256] Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians, most notably by the caliph Al-Hakim,[257] the series of military campaigns that followed were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.[258] The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack.[259] In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.[260]
Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux exerted great influence over the eight new monastic orders founded in the 12th century, including the Military Knights of the Crusades.[261] His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law.[262] In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.[263]
Twelfth-century France witnessed the emergence of Catharism, a belief which taught that all matter was evil, accepted suicide and denied the value of Church sacraments. After a papal legate was murdered by the Cathars in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade.[264] Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future abuses and to root out the remaining Cathars.[265][266] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.[266][267] Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Muslim invasion or for political purposes.[268] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning.[269][268] In the 14th century, King Philip IV of France created an inquisition for his suppression of the Knights Templar.[267] King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella formed an inquisition in 1480, originally to deal with distrusted ex-Jewish and ex-Muslim converts.[270] Over a 350-year period, the Spanish Inquisition executed between 3,000 and 4,000 people,[271] representing around two percent of those accused.[272] In 1482 Pope Sixtus IV condemned the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition, but Ferdinand ignored his protests.[273] Historians note that for centuries Protestant propaganda and popular literature exaggerated the horrors of the inquisitions in an effort to associate the entire Catholic Church with crimes most often committed by secular rulers.[274][275][276][277] Over all, one percent of those tried by the inquisitions received death penalties, leading many scholars to consider them rather lenient when compared to the secular courts of the period.[271][275] The inquisition played a major role in the final expulsion of Islam from the kingdoms of Sicily and Spain.[278]
A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside under French influence in the fortified city of Avignon.[279] What became known as the Avignon Papacy ended in 1378 when, at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who esteemed Rome as the see of Peter, the papacy finally returned to Rome.[280][281] With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was strongly disputed. Supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates were unable to come to agreement, resulting in the Western schism in which for 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third, compromise, pope was elected in 1409.[282] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.[282]
[edit] Late Medieval and Renaissance
- Further information: Roman Catholic Church and colonialism and Catholicism and the wars of religion
Beginning in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European explorers and missionaries spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal.[283] Under the patronato system, however, state authorities, not the Vatican, controlled all clerical appointments.[284] In December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola for their "... cruelty and tyranny ... in dealing with" the American natives".[285][286][287] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. However enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.[288] The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.[286][287] The reaction of Catholic theologians, such as Bartolome de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights[287] and the birth of modern international law.[289][290]
In 1521 Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines.[291] The following year, the first Franciscan missionaries arrived in Mexico, establishing schools, model farms and hospitals. When some Europeans questioned whether the Indians were truly human and worthy of baptism, Pope Paul III in the 1537 bull Sublimis Deus confirmed that "their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans" and they should neither be robbed nor turned into slaves.[292][293][294] Over the next 150 years, missions expanded into southwestern North America.[295] Native people were often legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, sometimes enforced with corporal punishment.[296] Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India and Japan.[297] By the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians.[298] Despite enforced isolation, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century.[298][299]
In 1509 Europe, the most famous scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church.[300] The Council of Constance, the Council of Basel and the Fifth Lateran Council attempted to reform these internal Church abuses but were thwarted because of the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries.[301] As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.[301][302] In 1517, Martin Luther included his Ninety-Five Theses in a letter to several bishops.[303][304] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.[303][304] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the Protestant Reformation.[305][229] In Germany, the reformation led to a nine-year war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. In 1618 a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, followed.[306] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants was hesitantly accepted by Pope Clement VIII.[306][307]
The English Reformation, initiated by Henry VIII, began as more of a political than a theological dispute.[308] His Acts of Supremacy, which made the English monarch head of the English church, established the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries were dissolved throughout England, Wales and Ireland and Catholic churches were confiscated.[309][310] Henry VIII executed those like Thomas More who disagreed with his Act of Supremacy. He later reaffirmed Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation and the celibacy of the clergy in the Six Articles of 1539, in opposition to the Calvinist and Lutheran views that were dominant among the Protestants of continental Europe.[310][311][312] However this affirmation did not extend to papal authority or the dissolution of monasteries, and when he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were gone.[310][313] Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions.[314][315] After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children.[314][316] Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions[314] and persisted under subsequent English monarchs.[317] Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland[318] but were less effective than in England.[314][319] In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.[314][319] The Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 and subsequent actions of the English parliament eventually helped to eliminate some of the oppressive anti-Catholic laws throughout the British empire.[319]
The Catholic Church responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which became the driving-force of the Counter-Reformation. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.[320] It also made important structural reforms, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and laity, and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.[321][320][322] New religious orders were founded, including the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.[323] The writings of figures such as Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri spawned new schools of spirituality within the Church.[324] To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture.
[edit] Enlightenment
Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI reformed abuses by the Church, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi.[325] Balancing the books, he then promoted missionary activity across the world, tried to unite Europe against Turkish invasion, and condemned religious persecution of all kinds.[325] In 1685 King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century-long experiment in religious toleration. This and other religious conflicts of the Reformation era provoked a backlash against Christianity. While Louis XIV endorsed Gallicanism as a means to weaken and control the church,[325] Jansenism and the attacks of thinkers such as Denis Diderot challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church[326] which helped spawn the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. Direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church.[327] Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason".[327] In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.[327] When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The pope was imprisoned by French troops, and died in 1799 after six weeks of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.[328] All over Europe, the end of the Napoleonic wars signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival, renewed enthusiasm, and new respect for the papacy following the depredations of the previous era.[329]
In the Americas, Franciscan priest Junípero Serra founded a series of new missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military.[330] These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. San Francisco was founded in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, in bringing Western civilization to the area, the missions have been held responsible for the loss of nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease.[331]
In South America, Jesuits missionaries protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.[332]
In China, however, the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions in 1721.[333] This controversy added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits who were seen to symbolize the independent power of the Church, and in 1773, European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.[334] The Jesuits were eventually restored in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.[335]
[edit] Industrial age
The latter part of the 19th century saw important church developments. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.[336][337] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.[338] Later, the Industrial Revolution brought growing concern about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum which set out Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.[339] By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.[340] The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate, and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.[340] Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.[340]
In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.[341] One such regime emerged in Mexico in 1860. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy. More severe laws called Calles Law during the rule of atheist Plutarco Elías Calles eventually led to the "worst guerilla war in Latin American History", the Cristero War.[342] Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.[343][344] In an effort to prove that "God would not defend the Church", Calles ordered Church desecreations where services were mocked, nuns were raped and captured priests were shot.[342] Calles was eventually deposed[342] and despite the persecution, the Church in Mexico continued to grow. A 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.[345] In 1954, under the regime of General Juan Perón, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.[346] Cuba, under atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting priests and discriminating against Catholics.[347] The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.[347] A European version of violent anti-clerical persecution took place in 1936 Spain. Because priests and nuns were symbols of conservatism, they were murdered in "large numbers" during the Spanish Civil War by republicans and anarchists.[348] Confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms have generally accompanied secularist and Marxist-leaning governmental reforms.[349]
In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, drafted by the future Pope Pius XII,[350] Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.[351] Read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it described Hitler as an insane and arrogant prophet and was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization.[352] Nazi persecution of the Church in Germany then began by "outright repression" and "staged prosecutions of monks for homosexuality, with the maximum of publicity."[353] When Dutch bishops protested against the deportation of Jews, the Nazi's responded with even more severe measures.[352] In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2500 monks and priests while even more were sent to concentration camps.[353] The Priester-Block (priests barracks) in Dachau lists 2600 Roman Catholic priests.[351] Stalin staged an even more severe persecution at almost the same time.[353] After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of anti–semitism, and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[354] Prominent members of the Jewish community such as Albert Einstein contradicted the criticisms and spoke highly of Pius' efforts to protect Jews, while others noted that "hundreds of thousands" of Jews were saved by the Church.[355] Even so, in 2000 Pope John Paul II on behalf of all people, apologized to Jews by inserting a prayer at the Western Wall that read "We're deeply saddened by the behavior of those in the course of history who have caused the children of God to suffer, and asking your forgiveness, we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant."[356] The aftermath of World War II saw atheistic communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restrict religious freedoms. The Church's resistance and the leadership of Pope John Paul II have been credited with hastening the downfall of communist governments across Europe in 1991,[357] even though some priests collaborated with the regime.[358]
Because Christians were considered to be tools of Western imperialism, the Communist take over of China in 1950 brought about the expulsion of all foreign missionaries "often after cruel and farcical 'public trials'".[359] In an effort to further detach Chinese Catholics, the new government created the Patriotic Church independent of the Roman Catholic Church.[359] Rome subsequently rejected its bishops.[360] The following decade saw the emergence of the Cultural Revolution that encouraged gangs of teenagers to eliminate both temples and churches and turn their occupants into labourers. While Chinese churches temporarily disappeared, their later return still found them controlled by the Communist party's Patriotic Church with legitimate Roman Catholic pastors and priests continuing to be sent to prison for refusing to break allegiance with Rome.[360]
[edit] Second Vatican Council
The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council (1962–65).[361] Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation making pronouncements on religious freedom, the nature of the church and the mission of the laity[361] and permitting the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments.[362] Christian unity became a greater priority.[363] In addition to finding more common ground with Protestant Churches, the Catholic Church has again discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church.[364]
Changes to old rites and ceremonies following Vatican II produced a variety of responses. Some Catholics stopped going to church, most "accepted the changes more or less gracefully,"[365] while others tried to preserve the old liturgy with the help of sympathetic priests.[365] The latter formed the basis of today's Traditionalist Catholic groups, which believe that the reforms of Vatican II have gone too far. Liberal Catholics form another dissenting group who feel that the Vatican II reforms did not go far enough. The liberal views of theologians such as Hans Küng and Charles Curran, led to Church withdrawal of their authorization to teach as Catholics.[366]
In the 1960s, growing social awareness and politicization in the Latin American Church gave birth to liberation theology. The Peruvian priest, Gustavo Gutiérrez, became its primary theorist[367] and, in 1979, the bishops' conference in Mexico officially declared the Latin American Church's "preferential option for the poor".[368] Archbishop Óscar Romero, a supporter of the movement, became the region's most famous contemporary martyr in 1980, when he was murdered while saying mass by forces allied with the government.[369] Both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI (as Cardinal Ratzinger) denounced the movement.[370] The Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff was twice ordered to cease publishing and teaching.[371] While Pope John Paul II was criticized for his severity in dealing with proponents of the movement, he maintained that the Church, in its efforts to champion the poor, should not do so by resorting to violence or partisan politics.[367] The movement is still alive in Latin America today, though the Church now faces the challenge of Pentecostal revival in much of the region.[372]
The sexual revolution of the 1960s precipitated Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae which affirmed the sanctity of life from conception to natural death, rejected the use of contraception, and declared both abortion and euthanasia to be murder.[373][374] The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where AIDS and HIV have attained epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that countries like Kenya and Uganda, where behavioral changes are endorsed instead of condom use, have experienced greater progress towards controlling the disease than countries solely promoting condoms.[375][376] Efforts to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women led Pope John Paul II to issue the 1988 encyclical Mulieris Dignitatem that declared that women had a different, yet equally important role in the Church.[377][378] In 1994 the encyclical Ordinatio Sacerdotalis further explained that the Church follows the example of Jesus, who chose only men for the specific priestly duty.[156][379][380] In 1995 Pope John Paul II stated that the death penalty was appropriate only when it was the only way to defend society, and the modern penal system made this option rare or nonexistent.[381]
Major lawsuits emerged in 2001 claiming that priests had sexually abused minors.[382] In the US, where the vast majority of sex abuse cases occurred, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops commissioned a comprehensive study that found that four percent of all priests who served in the US from 1950 to 2002 faced some sort of sexual accusation.[383][384] The Church was widely criticized when it emerged that some bishops had known about abuse allegations, and reassigned accused priests after first sending them to psychiatric counseling.[382][384][385][386] Some bishops and psychiatrists contended that the prevailing psychology of the times suggested that people could be cured of such behavior through counseling.[385][387] Pope John Paul II responded by declaring that "there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young".[388] The US Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse including requiring background checks for Church employees;[389][390] and, because the vast majority of victims were teenage boys, the worldwide Church also prohibited the ordination of men with "deep–seated homosexual tendencies".[147][387] Some commentators, such as journalist Jon Dougherty, have argued that media coverage of the issue has been excessive, given that the same problems plague other institutions such as the US public school system with much greater frequency.[391][392]
[edit] Catholicism today
The Roman Catholic Church continues to hold a unique place in today's world. The pope is an international leader who regularly receives heads of state from around the world. As the representative of Vatican City, he also holds a seat at the United Nations.[393] The election of Pope Benedict XVI in 2005 saw, on most issues, a continuation of the policies of his predecessor, John Paul II. His first encyclical Deus Caritas Est (God is Love) discussed the various forms of love re-emphasizing marriage and the centrality of charity to the Church's mission.[394] On his 2008 visit to the United States he was received with particular dignity and his Masses were televised live on the major national news networks. When asked why the Pope received such attention the US President said: "Because he is a really important figure ... he speaks for millions... he comes as a man of faith. And ... I want to honor his convictions, as well."[395] Following the controversy over Pope Benedict's Regensburg address, a May 2008 summit between the pope and a delegation of Muslims came to agreement that religion is essentially non-violent and that violence can be justified neither by reason nor by faith.[396] Likewise, in contrast to the religious intolerance of the Reformation period, today's Church prioritizes and works for Christian unity. The Church's Pontifical Academy of Sciences has been responsible for important advances in scientific knowledge, with its members representing a who's who of modern science and providing the pope with valuable insights in such regard.[397] The Catholic Church attempts to meet new challenges as times change, however as one scholar has noted; throughout its history, even through eras of internal corruption, the Church has not failed in its mission to bring the Gospel to the world.[398]
[edit] References
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ Whitehead, Kenneth (1996). "How Did the Catholic Church Get Her Name?". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved on 2008-05-09.
- ^ McClintock, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (1889), p. 71, quote: "The name may be found in a number of Roman Catholic writers, and is generally used in the constitution of those states in which the Roman Catholic Church is recognized as one of the recognized or tolerated State churches. It is, however, not the official name used by the authorities of the Church–who rather dislike it, and substitute for it the name 'Catholic' or 'Holy Catholic' Church. The name 'Roman Church' is applied, in the language of the Church, to the Church or diocese of the Bishop of Rome."
- ^ a b "Number of Catholics and Priests Rises". Zenit News Agency (12 February 2007). Retrieved on 2008-02-21.
- ^ a b "CIA World Factbook". United States Government Central Intelligence Agency (2007). Retrieved on 2008-02-28.
- ^ a b c Paul VI, Pope (1964). "Lumen Gentium". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 153
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 50–1
- ^ a b c d e Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 98–9
- ^ a b Temporini, "Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt" (1982), p. 480, quote: "... the activities of Jesus, and of Paul of Tarsus, cannot be understood without a knowledge of the peculiar world in which they operated. Some believe that Christianity was not founded by Jesus, called Christ, but rather by Peter with such of his associates who were apostles after Jesus's anastasis, which is usually called 'resurrection'. The faith of Peter, and the subsequent faith of Paul, are the rocks upon which the early churches were founded. Their psychosociological position at any rate must be known if one is to understand their proceedings. Others, this writer included, take Jesus as the inspiring force of the church."
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. ... Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"
- ^ a b c d Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 11, 14, quote: "The Church was founded by Jesus himself in his earthly lifetime.", "The apostolate was established in Rome, the world's capital when the church was inaugurated; it was there that the universality of the Christian teaching most obviously took its central directive–it was the bishops of Rome who very early on began to receive requests for adjudication on disputed points from other bishops."
- ^ a b c McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 37, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by Henry Chadwick, quote: "In Acts 15 scripture recorded the apostles meeting in synod to reach a common policy about the Gentile mission."
- ^ a b c d McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), pp. 37–8, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by Henry Chadwick, quote: "The 'synod' or, in Latin, 'council' (the modern distinction making a synod something less than a council was unknown in antiquity) became an indispensable way of keeping a common mind, and helped to keep maverick individuals from centrifugal tendencies. During the third century synodal government became so developed that synods used to meet not merely at times of crisis but on a regular basis every year, normally between Easter and Pentecost."
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 37, 43–4
- ^ a b c Matthew 16:18–19
- ^ John 16:12–13
- ^ a b Marthaler, Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues (1994), preface
- ^ O'Collins, Gerald; Mario Farrugia (26 June 2008). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford University Press. 019925995X.
- ^ Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church (1993), preface
- ^ Paragraph number 865 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 110
- ^ Shorto, Russel (8 April 2007). "Keeping the Faith". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved on 2008-03-29.
- ^ Paragraph number 881 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ a b c Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 46
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 1
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by Henry Chadwick, quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians who had ejected clergy without either financial or charismatic endowment in favour of a fresh lot; Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 6, quote: "For all these reasons, most scholars accept the early Christian tradition that Peter and Paul died in Rome. Yet, though they lived, preached and died in Rome, they did not strictly 'found' the Church there. Paul's Epistle to the Romans was written before either he or Peter ever set foot in Rome, to a Christian community already in existence."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 7
- ^ Matthew 28:19–20
- ^ Paragraph number 849 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 12
- ^ Benedict XVI, Pope (2005). "Deus Caritas Est". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-05-06.
- ^ a b Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, With a History and Critical Notes (1910), pp. 24, 56
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1997). "Laetamur Magnopere". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Richardson, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology (1983), p. 132
- ^ Langan, The Catholic Tradition (1998), p. 118
- ^ Parry, The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (1999), p. 292
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), pp. 254–60
- ^ Nichols, The Reformation: How a Monk and a Mallet Changed the World (2007), p. 30
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 275, 281
- ^ John 16:12–13
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 15–9
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 21, quote "Catholics recognize as divinely inspired the writings included in the ancient Greek version of the Old Testament that was used in the early church, known as the Septuagint. Protestants accept only the writings found in an early Hebrew version of the Bible, which did not include the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These books are sometimes referred to by Protestants as "the Apocrypha."
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 23, quote "In caring for the flock of Christ, one of the bishop's chief tasks was to ensure that correct doctrine was taught. So it was the bishops who needed to discern which writings and teachings being widely distributed were truly God's word for the whole church-and which were not. Their determination was officially announced in a decree of the Council of Rome in A.D. 382, under Pope Damasus, and confirmed by the Third Council of Carthage in A.D. 397. The present list of New Testament writings was first founded in the Codex Vaticanus from Rome around A.D. 340, and in St. Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter of A.D. 367."
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 30
- ^ Paragraph number 1131 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 298–9
- ^ Mongoven, The Prophetic Spirit of Catechesis: How We Share the Fire in Our Hearts (2000), p. 68
- ^ Paragraph number 1200–9 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-05-12.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 45
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 7
- ^ Matthew 22:37–40
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 91–92
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 51
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 390, 392, 405 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 57
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 18–9
- ^ Romans 5:12
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 49
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 308
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 71–2
- ^ McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction (2006), pp. 4–6
- ^ John 10:1–30
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 264–5
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 1850, 1857 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 77
- ^ Paragraph number 608 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ John 1:29
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 26
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 100
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 242
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 343–4
- ^ Paragraph number 1310 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1385, 1389 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
- ^ John 14:26
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 37
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1997), pp. 230–1
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 88
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 277
- ^ Paragraph number 1233 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-05-12.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 131
- ^ John 15:4–5
- ^ Paragraph numbers 777–8 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), pp. 113–4
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 114
- ^ a b Paragraph number 956 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Paragraph number 750 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ "Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Chapter 2 paragraph 15". Libreria Editrice Vaticana (1964). Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 373
- ^ [[Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum]]
- ^ Pius XI in Quadragesimo Anno
- ^ a b c d e f Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 379–86
- ^ Matthew 25:35–36
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 397
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 105
- ^ Luke 23:39–43
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 141
- ^ Paragraph numbers 2041–3 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 193
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 320
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1324–31 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
- ^ Matthew 26:26–28
- ^ Mark 14:22–24
- ^ Luke 22:19–20
- ^ 1 Cor 11:23–25
- ^ Luke 22:19
- ^ Matthew 26:27–28
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 232–9
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 328
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 325
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 189–90, quote: "Some of the earliest Christian writings, such as the Didache, or the 'Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,' chapters 9–10 (late first and early second century), and the First Apology of Justin Martyr, chapters 65–67 (about A.D. 155), describe the primitive form of the Mass and its prayers in a way that bears striking resemblance to the basic format of the Mass today. In fact, the main elements of St. Justin's description of the Mass are almost identical to the form Catholics now employ."
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1345–6 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-05-12.
- ^ Traufler, The Mass (1927), p. 79
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Ecclesia Dei". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-27.
- ^ Benedict XVI, Pope (2007). "Summorum Pontificum". Eternal Word Television Network. Retrieved on 2008-03-27.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 326
- ^ a b Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 331
- ^ a b Paragraph numbers 1399–401 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-05-12.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1400 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-06-05.
- ^ Luke 18:1
- ^ a b c Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 198
- ^ "Canon 276". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1174–8, 1196 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 116
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 86, 98
- ^ a b c d Paragraph numbers 2697–724 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), pp. 122–3
- ^ a b Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), pp. 199–200
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 106
- ^ Baedeker, Rob. "World's most-visited religious destinations". Retrieved on 2008-03-03.
- ^ Kreeft, Catholic Christianity (2001), p. 109
- ^ "Country profile: Vatican". BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Thavis, John (2005). "Election of new pope follows detailed procedure". Catholic News Service. Retrieved on 2008-02-11.
- ^ "Vatican Introduces Latin to 21st Century With New Dictionary". The New York Times (14 May 2003). Retrieved on 2008-05-13.
- ^ Vatican, Annuario Pontificio (Pontifical Yearbook) (2007), p. 1172
- ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 52
- ^ "Canon 207". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 42". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 375". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b c Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 114
- ^ Committee on the Diaconate. "Frequently Asked Questions About Deacons". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 1037". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 1031". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Cholij, Roman (1993). "Priestly Celibacy in Patristics and in the History of the Church". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-04-06.
- ^ Niebuhur, Gustav (16 February 1997). "Bishop's Quiet Action Allows Priest Both Flock And Family". The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-04-04.
- ^ Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium 1990, Code of Canon Law for the Eastern Catholic Churches, Canons 285, 373, 374, 758
- ^ a b Pope Benedict XVI. "Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders", Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Bainton, Horizon History of Christianity (1964), p. 64
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 54
- ^ Bainton, Horizon History of Christianity (1964), p. 172
- ^ "Canons 232–93". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-05-05.
- ^ USCCB, Program for Priestly Formation (2006), preface
- ^ USCCB, Program for Priestly Formation (2006), paras. 72, 243
- ^ Paragraph number 1577 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 496
- ^ a b Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth (2008), pp. 180–1, quote: "The difference between the discipleship of the Twelve and the discipleship of the women is obvious; the tasks assigned to each group are quite different. Yet Luke makes clear—and the other Gospels also show this in all sorts of ways—that 'many' women belonged to the more intimate community of believers and that their faith—filled following of Jesus was an essential element of that community, as would be vividly illustrated at the foot of the Cross and the Resurrection."
- ^ a b John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Christifideles Laici". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-17.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 871–2, 899, 901, 905, 908–9 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Paragraph numbers 1623 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-06-05.
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 350
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 315
- ^ a b c Pontifical Council for the Laity (2000). "International Associations of the Faithful". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-27.
- ^ "Canon 129". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ USCCB, Co–Workers in the Vineyard of the Lord (2005), p. 9
- ^ a b c "Canons 573–746". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canons 573–602, 605–709". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 654". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 587". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 605". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "Canon 11". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ a b Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 56
- ^ Gledhill, Ruth (2007). "Tony Blair converts to Catholicism". Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved on 2008-04-04.
- ^ "Pro-abortion politicians excluded from Communion: Pope". Catholic World News (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
- ^ "Excommunication". Catholic World News (9 May 2007). Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
- ^ Ioannes Paulus PP. II (1995). "Evangelium Vitae". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-03-03.
- ^ "Code of Canon Law section 1364,1367". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-03-03.
- ^ Paragraph number 1463 (1994). "Catechism of the Catholic Church". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), pp. 17–20
- ^ a b Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), pp. 41–3
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), pp. 30–5
- ^ "Number of priests increases, but not as fast as number of Catholics". Catholic News Service (29 February 2008). Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Bazar, Emily (16 April 2008). "Immigrants Make Pilgrimage to Pope". USA Today. Retrieved on 2008-05-03.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), preface
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 132
- ^ "Factfile: Roman Catholics around the world", BBC News (1 April 2005). Retrieved on 2008-03-24.
- ^ Pogatchnik, Shawn (13 April 2005). "Catholic Priest Shortage". CBS News. Retrieved on 2008-04-04.
- ^ a b c d Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), pp. 128–9
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 46
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 62-4
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 48
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 86
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 98
- ^ Froehle, Global Catholicism (2003), p. 10
- ^ Noble, Western Civilization (2005), p. 446, quote "The most chilling tribute, however, was in humans for sacrifice. When the wars of expansion that had provided prisoners came to an end, the Aztecs and their neighbors fought 'flower wars' - highly ritualized battles to provide prisoners to be sacrificed. Five thousand victims were sacrificed at the coronation of Moctezuma II (r. 1502-1520) in 1502. Even more, reportedly twenty thousand were sacrificed at the dedication of the great temple of Huitzilopochtli in Tenochtitlan." p. 456, quote "The peoples living in the Valley of Mexico believed that their conquest was fated by the gods and that their new masters would bring in new gods. The Spaniards' beliefs were strikingly similar, based on the revelation of divine will and the omnipotence of the Christian God. Cortes, by whitewashing former Aztec temples and converting native priests into white-clad Christian priests, was in a way fulfilling the Aztecs' expectations about their conquerer."
- ^ Kohl, Infanticide and the Value of Life (1978), p. 61, Contribution entitled Infanticide: an anthropological analysis by L Williamson, quote: "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations, including our own ancestors. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 56
- ^ Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), p. 242
- ^ Noll, Mark (8 August 2008). The Civil War as a Theological Crisis. University of North Carolina Press, 137-140. 0807830127.
- ^ Stark, Rodney (23 August 2008). The Rise of Christianity. Princeton University Press, 104. 0691027498.
- ^ "J.L. Heilbron". London Review of Books. Retrieved on 2006-09-15.
- ^ Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (October 2003). When Science and Christianity Meet. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-48214-6.
- ^ Goldstein, Thomas (April 1995). Dawn of Modern Science: From the Ancient Greeks to the Renaissance. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80637-1.
- ^ Ramsay MacMullen, "Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eight Centuries", p4, Yale University Press, 1997,ISBN 0-300-07148-5
- ^ Gardner, Roy; Denis Lawton, Jo Cairns (23 August 2008). Faith Schools. Routledge, 148-165.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 133
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 122
- ^ Murray, Dictionary of the Arts (1994), p. 45
- ^ "DAY OF PARDON", Vatican Basilica, 12 March 2000[1]
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 19–20
- ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p. 130
- ^ a b Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 281, quote: "By the year 100, more than 40 Christian communities existed in cities around the Mediterranean, including two in North Africa, at Alexandria and Cyrene, and several in Italy."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 18, quote: "The story of how this tiny community of believers spread to many cities of the Roman Empire within less than a century is indeed a remarkable chapter in the history of humanity."
- ^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 115
- ^ Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth (2008), p. 112
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 40–2, quote: "Several pieces of evidence indicate that the Bishop of Rome even after Peter held some sort of preeminence among other bishops. ... (lists several historical documents) ... None of these examples, taken by themselves, would be sufficient to prove the primacy of the successors of Peter and Paul. Taken together, however, they point to a Roman authority which was recognized in the early church as going beyond that of other churches."
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p. 36, Chapter 1 The Early Christian Community subsection entitled "Rome" by Henry Chadwick, quote: "Towards the latter part of the first century, Rome's presiding cleric named Clement wrote on behalf of his church to remonstrate with the Corinthian Christians ... Clement apologized not for intervening but for not having acted sooner. Moreover, during the second century the Roman community's leadership was evident in its generous alms to poorer churches. About 165 they erected monuments to their martyred apostles ... Roman bishops were already conscious of being custodians of the authentic tradition or true interpretation of the apostolic writings. In the conflict with Gnosticism Rome played a decisive role, and likewise in the deep division in Asia Minor created by the claims of the Montanist prophets to be the organs of the Holy Spirit's direct utterances."
- ^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 155, quote: "For all the scattered nature of the churches, a very large number of believers in apostolic times lived no more than a week or so's travel from one of the main hubs of the christian movement: Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Ephesus, Corinth or Philippi. Communities received regular visits from itinerant teachers and leaders.. This unity was focussed upon the essentials of belief in Jesus.
- ^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), pp. 169, 181
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 27–8, quote: "A distinguished succession of theological apologists added intellectual authority to the resources at the disposal of the papacy, at just that point in its early development when the absence of a centralized teaching office could have fractured the universal witness to a single body of ideas. At the end of the first century there was St. Clement of Rome, third successor to St. Peter in the see; in the second century there was St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Irenaeus of Lyons and St. Justin Martyr; in the fourth century St. Augustine of Hippo, the greatest theologian of the Early Church."
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 282
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 53–5
- ^ Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005), p. 341
- ^ Herring, An Introduction to the History of Christianity (2006), p. 60
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 18
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 284
- ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p. 286
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 61–2
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners(1997), p. 35
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 84–93
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 5–20
- ^ a b Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 21
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 27
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 120
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 50–2
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), pp. 84–6
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 102–3
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 63, quote: "Leo's edict was the product of profound social panic, several generations of theological reflection by bishops and theologians, and the cumulative impact of controversy about the person and natures of Christ. Whatever the causes however, the Emperor's attack on images, and the resulting wave of image-breaking or 'iconoclasm', fell like a thunderbolt in the West. ... and Pope Gregory II saw in it yet another example of the empire espousing heresy. Indignantly, he rejected Leo's decree, and warned him that as a layman he had no right to interfere in theological matters. The Emperor ordered the new Exarch to depose the Pope, provoking a series of uprisings ... Gregory did what he could to prevent this feeling escalating into revolution, urging loyalty to the imperial ideal, but the Iconoclastic crisis deepened under his successor Gregory III (731–41)."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 63, 74
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the Pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the Pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate, and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 82
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 81–2, quote: "Relations between Rome and Constantinople had been poor for generations, and since the creation of the Carolingian empire and the Iconoclastic controversy what little contact there was between the Latin and Greek Churches was charged with mutual suspicion. The Photius affair crystallised that hostility."
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 91
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 103
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 104
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 119, 131
- ^ "Eastern Catholic". Catholic World News. Trinity Communications (2008). Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 278
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 88–9
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 40–4
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 80–2
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), pp. 44–8
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 158–9
- ^ Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders (1997), p. 8
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 130–1
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 140 quote: "And so when Urban called for a crusade at Clermont in 1095, one of his motives was to bring help to the beleaguered Eastern Christians."
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 155 quote: "Stories were also circulating about the harsh treatment of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem at the hands of the infidel, inflaming Western opinion."
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), pp. 65–7
- ^ Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades (2006), pp. 525–60
- ^ "Pope sorrow over Constantinople". BBC News (29 June 2004). Retrieved on 2008-04-06.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church (2007), p. 62
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 101
- ^ Le Goff, Medieval Civilization (1964), p. 87
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 112
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 144–7, quote: "The Albigensian Crusade, as it became known, lasted until 1219. The pope, Innocent III, was a lawyer and saw both how easily the crusade had gotten out of hand and how it could be mitigated. He encouraged local rulers to adopt anti-heretic legislation and bring people to trial. By 1231 a papal inquisition began, and the friars were given charge of investigating tribunals."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 132, quote: "A crusade was proclaimed against these Albigenses, as they were sometimes called ... It was in connection with this crusade that the papal system of Inquisition originated-a special tribunal appointed by the Popes and charged with ferreting out heretics. Until then the responsibility devolved on the local bishops. However, Innocent found it necessary in coping with the Albigensian threat to send out delegates who were entrusted with special powers that made them independent of the episcopal authority. In 1233 Gregory IX organized this ad hoc body into a system of permanent inquisitors, who were usually chosen from among the mendicant friars, Dominicans and Franciscans, men who were often marked by a high degree of courage, integrity, prudence, and zeal."
- ^ a b Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 93
- ^ a b Black, Early Modern Italy (2001), pp. 200–2
- ^ Casey, Early Modern Spain: A Social History (2002), pp. 229–30
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), pp. 48–9
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 150–2
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), pp. 59, 203
- ^ Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (1997), p. 49, quote: "In this bull the pope protested ... the Inquisition has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth, and that many true and faithful Christians, on the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other lower and even less proper persons, have without any legitimate proof been thrust into secular prisons, tortured and condemned as relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and property and handed over to the secular arm to be executed, to the peril of souls, setting a pernicious example, and causing disgust to many."
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 93, quote: "... subsequent Protestant propaganda for centuries identified the entire Catholic Church in Spain, and elsewhere, with their occasional excesses. By the 19th century political liberals and religious dissenters took the 'crimes' of the Inquisition to be the ultimate proofs of the vile character of 'popery', and an enormous popular literature on the subject poured from the presses of Europe and North America. At its most active, in the 16th century, nevertheless, the Inquisition was regarded as far more enlightened than the secular courts: if you denied the Trinity and repented you were given penance; if you stole a sheep and repented you were hung. It has been calculated that only one per cent of those who appeared before the Inquisition tribunals eventually received death penalties. But the damage wrought by propaganda has been effective, and today the 'Spanish' Inquisition, like the Crusades, persists in supplying supposedly discreditable episodes to damn the memory of the Catholic past."
- ^ a b Armstrong, The European Reformation (2002), p. 103, quote: "Contrary to subsequent Protestant propaganda the procedure followed by the (Papal) Inquisition was careful and respectful with regard to legal rights. Clear proof was required, along with two witnesses, and rarely was torture used to extract confessions. Anonymous denunciations were illegal, while a defence lawyer was guaranteed for the suspect. Punishments were generally lenient and designed to bring the guilty party back into the fold. The public abjuration of protestantism before a congregation might suffice, for example."
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 215, quote: "The inquisition has come to occupy such a role in European demonology that we must be careful to keep it in proportion. ... and the surviving records indicate that the proportion of executions was not high."
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 146, quote: "The extent of the Inquisition trials for heresy has been highly exaggerated. Once the Inquisition was established ... the pyromania which had characterized lay attempts to suppress heresy came to an end. Ninety percent of the sentences were "canonical" or church-related penances: fasting, pilgrimage, increased attendance at Mass, the wearing of distinctive clothing or badges, etc. The number of those who were put to death was very small indeed. The best estimate is that, of every hundred people sentenced, one person was executed, and ten were given prison terms. Even these latter could have their sentences reduced once the inquisitors left town."
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 187
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 232, Chapter 6 Christian Civilization by Colin Morris (University of Southampton)
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 155
- ^ a b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 240, Chapter 7 The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation by Patrick Collinson (University of Cambridge)
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 13, 283
- ^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 39, 59
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 135
- ^ a b Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, pp. 109, 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolome de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail."
- ^ a b c Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 287
- ^ Dussel, Enrique, A History of the Church in Latin America, Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1981, pp. 45, 52, 53 quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolome de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."
- ^ Woods, How the Church Built Western Civilization (2005), p. 137
- ^ Chadwick, Owen, The Reformation, Penguin, 1990, p. 327
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 21
- ^ Chadwick, Owen, The Reformation, Penguin, 1990, p. 190
- ^ Johansen, Bruce, The Native Peoples of North America, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 2006, p. 110, quote: "In the Papal bull Sublimis deus (1537), Pope Paul III declared that Indians were to be regarded as fully human, and that their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans. This edict also outlawed slavery of Indians in any form ..."
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), p. 290
- ^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 14
- ^ Jackson, From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest (2000), p. 13
- ^ Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 3, 17
- ^ a b Koschorke, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (2007), pp. 31–2
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 318, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by John McManners
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 86
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 201–5
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 149
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 184
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 215
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 196–200
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–8
- ^ Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (1996), p. 470, quote: "The (English) Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make any substantial change in doctrine."
- ^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 309–11
- ^ a b c Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 220, quote: "Henry, seeing how far Cranmer had tried to take him in making the land Lutheran or Calvinist, pulled the plug in September 1538 and passed the Six Articles, which tried to restore the ancient faith, including the practice of celibacy for the clergy. By 1543 most of the Reformation legislation was reversed. One man, John Lambert, was made an example in November 1538. He was burned by being dragged in and out of the fire for holding the very same beliefs about the Eucharist that Cranmer held. Cranmer was made to watch the whole brutal event. He also had to send his wife back to Germany."
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 236 quote: "While no longer the powerful spiritual force and centers of learning they were in the early Middle Ages, the monasteries were an important part of traditional church life and their destruction was an important factor in the gradual triumph of reformation ideas in England. The spread of these ideas occurred in spite of Henry, who though defiant of the Pope remained deeply devoted to traditional Catholicism and was determined to maintain its substance. It is true that under the pressure of political necessity Henry allowed the publication of the ambiguous Ten Articles (1536) and he also approved of the Act that set up the English Bible in all the churches. But his Six Articles (1539) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and imposed savage penalties for denial of transubstantiation, private Masses, private confession, or the need for clerical celibacy."
- ^ Haigh, The English Reformation Revised (1987), p. 10, quote: "The dominance of the evangelicals was broken in the coups of 1539–40, when Henry's distaste for radical religion and for Anne of Cleves allowed conservatives to reverse religious policy and overthrow Cromwell."
- ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, Volume 2 (1985), p. 75, quote: "In England, he took steps to make the church conform as much as possible to Roman Catholicism, except in the matter of obedience to the pope. He also refused to restore monasteries, which he had suppressed and confiscated under the pretense of reformation, and whose properties he had no intention of returning."
- ^ a b c d e Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 225–6
- ^ Haigh, The English Reformation Revised (1987), p. 159, quote: "Mary wanted to make England a Catholic country as quickly as possible: to reintroduce the pope's authority, to repeal those parliamentary statutes which had so radically altered the relationship of Church and State and to restore to the Church its Catholic doctrine and services. Nothing was to be allowed to stand in her way. No murmurings among the people, no riots or rebellions or intrigues, not even the advice of the Spanish ambassador to make haste slowly could deflect the Queen from her purpose. ... Death by burning at the hands of the sheriffs became the penalty for those who, convicted of heresy in the church courts, refused to recant."
- ^ Solt, Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640, (1990), p. 149
- ^ Schama, A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World? (2003), pp. 272–3.
- ^ Jackson, Ireland Her Own (1991), p. 514
- ^ a b c Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 131–2
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 242–4
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 81
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 237
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 91–2
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 251
- ^ a b c Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 188–91
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 267–9
- ^ a b c Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 283–5
- ^ Collins, The Story of Christianity (1999), p. 176
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 214–6
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 111–2
- ^ King, Mission to Paradise (1975), p. 169
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 221
- ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (1990), p. 328, Chapter 9 The Expansion of Christianity by John McManners
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 193
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 295
- ^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
- ^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 240
- ^ a b c Hastings, The Church in Africa (2004), pp. 397–410
- ^ Stacy, Mexico and the United States (2003), p. 139
- ^ a b c Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 264–5
- ^ Scheina, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo (2003), p. 33
- ^ Van Hove, Brian (1994). "Blood-Drenched Altars Blood Drenched Altars". EWTN. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report 2001" (PDF). US Department of State (2001). Retrieved on 2008-03-13.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–8
- ^ a b Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), p. 266
- ^ Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 240
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), pp. 167–72
- ^ Pham, Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession (2005), p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit Brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.' "
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 327–33, quote: "Mark well that in the Catholic Mass, Abraham is our Patriarch and forefather. Anti-Semitism is incompatible with the lofty thought which that fact expresses. It is a movement with which we Christians can have nothing to do. No, no, I say to you it is impossible for a Christian to take part in anti-Semitism. It is inadmissible. Through Christ and in Christ we are the spiritual progeny of Abraham. Spiritually, we are all Semites."
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 389–92
- ^ a b c Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 254–5
- ^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 480–1, quote:"A recent article by American rabbi, David G. Dalin, challenges this judgement. He calls making Pius XII a target of moral outrage a failure of historical understanding, and he thinks Jews should reject any 'attempt to usurp the Holocaust' for the partisan purposes at work in this debate. Dalin surmises that well–known Jews such as Albert Einstein, Golda Meir, Moshe Sharett, and Rabbi Isaac Herzog would likely have been shocked at these attacks on Pope Pius. Einstein, for instance, in an article in Time, paid tribute to Pius and noted that the Church alone 'stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign.' Dalin points out that 'Rabbi Herzog, the chief rabbi of Israel, sent a message in February 1944 declaring "the people of Israel will never forget what His Holiness ... (is) doing for our unfortunate brothers and sisters in the most tragic hour of our history." ' Dalin cites these tributes as recognition of the work of the Holy See in saving hundreds of thousands of Jews."
- ^ Randall, Gene (26 March 2000). "Pope Ends Pilgrimage to the Holy Land". CNN. Retrieved on 2008-06-09.
- ^ "Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won", CBC News. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.
- ^ Smith, Craig (10 January 2007). "In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics". The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-05-23.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), pp. 356–7
- ^ a b Chadwick, A History of Christianity (1995), pp. 259–60
- ^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 270–6
- ^ Paul VI, Pope (4 December 1963). "Sacrosanctum Concilium". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 274
- ^ "Roman Catholic-Eastern Orthodox Dialogue". Public Broadcasting Service (14 July 2000). Retrieved on 2008-02-16.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 410
- ^ Bauckham, Richard, in New Dictionary of Theology, Ed. Ferguson, (1988), p. 373
- ^ a b "Liberation Theology". BBC (2005). Retrieved on 2008-06-02.
- ^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press, 31. ISBN 978-0334040231.
- ^ For more on Romero, by a former colleague, see Sobrino, Jon (1990). Archbishop Romero: Memories and Reflections. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. ISBN 978-0883446676.
- ^ Rohter, Larry (7 May 2007). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-02-21. Benedict's main involvement in dealing with liberation theology was while he was still Cardinal Ratzinger.
- ^ Aguilar, Mario (2007). The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1. London: SCM Press, 121. ISBN 978-0334040231.
- ^ For liberation theology's persistence, see Rohter, Larry (7 May 2007). "As Pope Heads to Brazil, a Rival Theology Persists", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. For the threat from Pentecostalism, see Stoll, David (1990). Is Latin America turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520064997.
- ^ Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae Vitae". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-02-02.
- ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History (2007), p. 184
- ^ Dugger, Carol (18 May 2006). "Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved on 2008-02-21.
- ^ Wilson, Brenda (4 May 2004). "Study: Verbal Warnings Helped Curb AIDS in Uganda". National Public Radio. Retrieved on 2008-08-15.
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris Dignitatem". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-02-21.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 467
- ^ John Paul II, Pope (22 May 1994). "Apostolic Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on Reserving Priestly Ordination to Men Alone". Vatican. Retrieved on 2008-02-02.
- ^ Cowell, Alan (31 May 1994). "Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
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- ^ Owen, Richard (7 January 2008). "Pope calls for continuous prayer to rid priesthood of paedophilia". Times Online UK edition. Times Newspapers Ltd. Retrieved on 2008-03-31.
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- ^ a b Steinfels, A People Adrift (2003). pp. 40–6
- ^ Frawley-ODea, Perversion of Power: Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church (2007), p. 4
- ^ a b Filteau, Jerry (2004). "Report says clergy sexual abuse brought 'smoke of Satan' into church". Catholic News Service. Retrieved on 2008-03-10.
- ^ Walsh, John Paul II: A Light for the World (2003), p. 62
- ^ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (2005). "Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People". United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Retrieved on 2007-10-08.
- ^ "Scandals in the church: The Bishops' Decisions; The Bishops' Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People". The New York Times (15 June 2002). Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
- ^ Dougherty, Jon (5 April 2004). "Sex Abuse by Teachers Said Worse Than Catholic Church". Newsmax. Retrieved on 2008-06-11.
- ^ Shakeshaft, Charol (2004). "Educator Sexual Misconduct" (PDF). US Department of Education. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
- ^ "Pope urges global unity on crises". BBC News (19 April 2008). Retrieved on 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Deus Caritas Est". Vatican (25 December 2005). Retrieved on 2008-07-28.
- ^ Loven, Jennifer (14 April 2008). "Bush readies big welcome for pope". USA Today. Retrieved on 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Pope in dialogue with Iranian officials". Irishtimes (30 April 2008). Retrieved on 2008-08-27.
- ^ Mason, Michael. "Alliance, Many of the greatest minds of science meet regularly in Vatican City to counsel the pope on the hot topics of the day'". Discover Magazine (September 2008): 43. Discover Magazine. Retrieved on 2008-08-19.
- ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 157
[edit] Bibliography
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[edit] External links
- Vatican: the Holy See – The official website of the Vatican.
- Catholic Hierarchy – Information on Catholic bishops and dioceses.
- The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church – Information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church.
- Global Catholic Statistics: 1905 and TodayPDF (26.3 KiB) by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD.
- MassTimes – A comprehensive database of every Catholic Church and Mass in the entire world.
- The Catholic Guide – A comprehensive source on the Roman Catholic Church.
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