Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone (
/siːˈɛrə liːˈoʊn/) (Krio: Sa Lone), officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi)[4] and has a population estimated at 6.5 million. It is a former British Colony and now a constitutional republic comprising three provinces and the Western Area; which are further divided into fourteen districts.
The country has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests.[5] Freetown is the capital, largest city and economic center. The other major cities are Bo, Kenema, Koidu Town and Makeni.[4]
English is the official language,[6] spoken at schools, government administration and by the media. However, the Krio language (a language derived from English and several African languages and native to the Sierra Leone Krio people) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of the country, namely by 97% of the country's population,[2] uniting all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[1] Despite its common use throughout the country, the Krio language has no official status.
Sierra Leone is officially home to fourteen ethnic groups, each with its own language and costume. However, the two largest and most dominant are the Mende and Temne, each comprising 30% of the population. The Mende are predominantly found in the South-Eastern region of Sierra Leone and the Temne likewise predominate in Northern Sierra Leone. The Mende have had a long history of political dominance of Sierra Leone. The country is a predominantly muslim nation, though with a large Christian minority at 35%. Unlike most African nations, Sierra Leone has no serious ethnic and religious divisions. People often married across tribal and religious boundaries.
Sierra Leone is very rich in mineral resources, possessing most of the known mineral types of the world, many of which are found in significant quantities. The country has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base; it is among the top 10 diamond producing nations in the world, and mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, and a major producer of gold. The country has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile. Despite this natural wealth, the vast majority of its people live in poverty.
Early inhabitants of Sierra Leone included the Sherbro, Temne and Limba, and Tyra[disambiguation needed] peoples, and later the Mende,[7] who knew the country as Romarong, and the Kono who settled in the east of the country.[8] In 1462, it was visited by the Portuguese explorer Pedro da Cintra, who dubbed it Serra de Leão, meaning "Lion Mountains".[9][10] Sierra Leone later became an important centre of the transatlantic trade in slaves until 1792 when Freetown was founded by the Sierra Leone Company as a home for formerly enslaved African Americans.[11] In 1808, Freetown became a British Crown Colony, and in 1896, the interior of the country became a British Protectorate;[8] in 1961, the two combined and gained independence. The country had a Sierra Leone Civil War,[12] which began in 1991 and was resolved in 2000 after the struggling Nigerian-led United Nations troops were heavily reinforced by a British force spearheaded by 42 Commando of the Royal Marines as well as several British Army units. The arrival of this force in what was codenamed Operation Palliser resulted in the defeat of rebel forces and restored the civilian government elected in 1998 to Freetown. Since then, almost 72,500 former combatants have been disarmed[13] and the country has reestablished a functioning democracy.[2] The Special Court for Sierra Leone was set up in 2002 to deal with war crimes and crimes against humanity committed since 1996.[14] Sierra Leone is the third-lowest-ranked country on the Human Development Index and eighth-lowest on the Human Poverty Index, suffering from endemic corruption[15] and suppression of the press.[16]
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[edit] History
[edit] Early history
Archaeological finds show that Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years,[17] populated by successive movements from other parts of Africa.[18] The use of iron was introduced to Sierra Leone by the 9th century, and by AD 1000 agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes.[19] Sierra Leone's dense tropical rainforest largely protected it from the influence of any precolonial African empires[20] and from further Islamic colonization, which were unable to penetrate through it until the 18th century.[21]
European contacts with Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. In 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro da Cintra mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming shaped formation Serra de Leão (Portuguese for Lion Mountains).[10] The Italian rendering of this geographic formation is Sierra Leone, which became the country's name. Soon after Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour and by 1495 a fort that acted as a trading post had been built.[22] The Portuguese were joined by the Dutch and French; all of them using Sierra Leone as a trading point for slaves.[23] In 1562 the English joined the trade in human beings when Sir John Hawkins shipped 300 enslaved people, he had acquired 'by the sword and partly by other means', to the new colonies in America.[24]
[edit] Enslavement and freedom
In 1787, a plan was established to settle some of London's "Black Poor" in Sierra Leone in what was called the "Province of Freedom". A number of "Black Poor" arrived off the coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, accompanied by some English tradesmen. This was organized by the St. George's Bay Company, composed of British philanthropists who preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them in London. Many of the "Black poor" were African Americans, who had been promised their freedom for joining the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other African and Asian inhabitants of London.
Disease and hostility from the indigenous people nearly eliminated the first group of colonists. Through intervention by Thomas Peters, the Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate another group of formerly enslaved Africans, this time nearly 1,200 Black Nova Scotians, most of whom had escaped enslavement in the United States. Given the most barren land in Nova Scotia, many had died from the harsh winters there. They established a settlement at Freetown in 1792 led by Peters. It was joined by other groups of freed Africans and became the first African-American haven for formerly enslaved Africans.
Though the English abolitionist Granville Sharp originally planned Sierra Leone as a utopian community, the directors of the Sierra Leone Company refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. Knowing how Highland Clearances benefited Scottish landlords but not tenants, the settlers revolted in 1799. The revolt was only put down by the arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons, who also arrived via Nova Scotia.
Thousands of formerly enslaved Africans were returned to or liberated in Freetown. Most chose to remain in Sierra Leone. These returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. They joined the previous settlers and together became known as Creole or Krio people.
Cut off from their homes and traditions, they assimilated some aspects of British styles of inhabitants and built a flourishing trade of flowers and beads on the West African coast. The lingua franca of the colony was Krio, a creole language rooted in 18th century African American English, which quickly spread across the region as a common language of trade and Christian mission. In the 1790s, blacks voted for the first time in elections, as did women.[25]
After the collapse of the Sierra Leone Company, the newly-formed African Institution met in 1807 to achieve more success by focusing on bettering the local economy, but it was constantly split between those British who meant to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company which held the (English) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade.[26]
[edit] Colonial era
In the early 20th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British governor who also ruled the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and the Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone also served as the educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, established in 1827, rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western Sub-Saharan Africa.
During Sierra Leone's colonial history, indigenous people mounted several unsuccessful revolts against British rule and Krio domination. The most notable was the Hut Tax war of 1898. Its first leader was Bai Bureh, a Temne chief who refused to recognize the British-imposed tax on "huts" (dwellings). The tax was generally regarded by the native chiefs as an attack on their sovereignty. After the British issued a warrant to arrest Bai Bureh alleging that he had refused to pay taxes, Bai Bureh declared war on British in Northern Sierra Leone, with the full support of several prominent native chiefs, including the powerful Kissi chief Kai Londo and the Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Both chief sentwarriors and weapons to aide Bai Bureh.
Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British for several months of the war. Hundreds of British troops and hundreds of Bureh's fighters were killed.[27] Bai Bureh was finally captured on 11 November 1898 and sent into exile in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), while 96 of his comrades were hanged by the British.
The defeat of the natives in the Hut Tax war ended large scale organised resistance to colonialism; however resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. Riots in 1955 and 1956 involved "many tens of thousands" of natives in the protectorate.[28]
One notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust run by De Beers, which was scheduled to last 98 years.
[edit] An independent nation
The 1924 Sierra Leone constitution was divided into Colony and Protectorate with separate and different political systems. Antagonism between the two entities came to a heated debate in 1947 when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate, most of whom were to come from the Protectorate. The Creoles, lead by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, naturally opposed the proposals whose effect would have been to diminish their political power. It was due to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai an ethnic Mende and the leading politician from the protectorate that educated Protectorate elite were won over to join forces with the paramount chiefs in the face of Creole intransigence. Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Creole elements for the achievement of independence.
In November 1951 Sir Milton Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution which united the formerly separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and—most importantly—provided a framework for decolonization.[29] In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers and Sir Milton Margai, the leader of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) was elected Chief Minister under the new constitution.[29] The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations.ref name="advocate"/> In May 1957, Sierra Leone held it first parliamentary election. The SLPP, which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone, won the vast majority of the seats in Parliament and Margai was also re-elected as Chief Minister by landslide.
Margai led the Sierra Leonean delegation at the constitutional conferences that were held with British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in London in 1960. All members of the Sierra Leonean delegation were all prominents and well respected politicians, Sir Milton's younger brother Sir Albert Margai, John Kareefa Smart, Lamina Sankoh, Kande Bureh, Sir Banja-Tejan Sie, Ella Koblo Gulama, Amadu Wurie, Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha and Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings. Two notable absentee from the delegation were Siaka Stevens, the leader of the opposition APC and the veteran Creole politician Isaac Wallce-Johnson who were placed under house arrest in Freetown after they were accused of disrupting the Independence movement.[30]
On 27 April 1961, Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from the United Kingdom.[29] Thousands of Sierra Leoneans across the nation took to the street to celebrate their Independence. The nation held its first general elections on 27 May 1962 and Margai was elected Sierra Leone's first Prime Minister by a landslide.[29] Milton Margai's political party, the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), won by large margins in the nation's first general election under universal adult suffrage in May 1962. In April 1962, Sir Albert announced Sierra Leone's first cabinet as an independence nation. . The cabinet included John Kareefa Smart as Foreign minister, Sir Albert Margai as Finance Minister, Kande Bureh as minister of Works and Housing, Sir Banja Tejan Sie as attorney-general, , Ella Koblo Gulama as Trade and Industry minister and Amadu Wurie as Education Minister.
An important aspect of Sir Milton's character was his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status. Sir Milton's government was based on the rule of law and the notion of separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly vibrant representative structures. Milton Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials with a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups.
Upon Margai's death on 28 April 1964, his brother Sir Albert Margai, who was Sierra Leone's Minister of Finance under Milton's government, was chosen by an overwhelming majority vote in Parliament to be the new leader of the SLPP and the country's next prime minister. Sir Albert Margai's leadership was briefly challenged by Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, an ethnic Sherbro, who questioned Sir Albert succession to the SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support in Parliament to have Margai stripped of the SLPP leadership.
[edit] Albert Margai Administration
Sir Albert was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second Prime Minister the same day his brother died at a ceremony held at the state house in Freetown. Soon after Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed Karefa-Smart and several other senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton's government, as he viewed them as traitors and a threat to his administration.
Sir Albert was highly criticized during his three-year rule as prime minister. He was accused of corruption and of favouritism toward his own Mende ethnic group. Albert Margai, unlike his late brother Milton, was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing the country's Paramount Chiefs executive powers and he was seen as a threat to the existence of the ruling houses across the country. This made him unpopular with the powerful paramount chiefs, most of whom were founding members of the SLPP. To strengthen support for his reform agenda for the party and the country the new Prime Minister brought into the executive of the SLPP and his government younger, western-educated, and more radicallised members of the party including Salia Jusu Sheriff (PhD). The party was thus divided with the traditionalist and more powerful old guard against the new and younger leaders.
As Prime Minister Sir Albert Margai opposed Creole domination of the civil service and many ethnic Creoles lost their positions in the civil service as a result. Subsequently, many Creoles supported the All-People’s Congress (APC), led by Siaka Stevens, an ethnic Limba. Sir Albert also tried to establish a one-party state but with very little support in Parliament, even among his fellow SLPP members and was also met by fierce resistance from the main opposition the All People's Congress (APC)], which had become suddenly more popular than the rulling SLPP and ultimately abandoned the idea. During Albert Margai's administration, The Mende increased their influence both in the civil service and the army. Most of the top military and government positions were held by Mendes, and Mende country (the South-Eastern part of Sierra Leone) received preferential treatment.
[edit] Military coup
In a closely contested general elections in March 1967, Sierra Leone Governor General Sir Henry Josiah Lightfoot Boston declared the new prime minister to be Siaka Stevens, an ethnic Limba and the candidate of the All People's Congress (APC) and the mayor of Freetown, defeating the incumbent Prime Minister Sir Albert Margai by a narrow margin. Stevens was sworn in as Sierra Leone's third Prime Minister on 17 May 1967 in front of thousands of cheering supporters in Freetown. Hours after taking office, a group of armed soldiers in the Sierra Leone army stormed the State House and abducted Stevens at gunpoint and a coup was declared to a shocked nation. The group was lead by Brigadier General David Lansana, an ethnic Mende and the commander of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Brigadier David Lansana was a prominent supporter of Albert Margai who had appointed him in 1964 as the commander of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. Brigadier Lansana decared a state of emergency and martial law was impossed across the country. Brigadier Lansana insisted that the determination of office should await the election of the tribal representatives in Parliament, mostly from Mende chiefdoms in South-Eastern Sierra Leone.
However, on 23 March 1968, a group of senior military officers in the Sierra Leone Army, lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith, an ethnic Creole, overrode this action by seizing control of the government, arresting Lansana and suspending the constitution and an unlimited power was given to soldiers across the country. The group constituted itself as the National Reformation Council (NRC) with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman. In April 1968, the NRC was overthrown by a group of senior military officers in the Sierra Leone Army who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura, an ethnic Limba. The ACRM imprisoned Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith and other senior NRC members and restored the constitution. In Bragadier Bangura's first speech, surrounded by hundreds of armed soldier, he urged Sierra Leoneans to stay calm and appeal to the military to respect the constitution and stay out of politics. Bangura invited Stevens to the state house and reinstated him as Prime Minister in a special ceremony.
[edit] Stevens government and one party state
Stevens assumed power once again in 1968 with a great deal of promise and ambition. Much trust was placed upon him as he was then champion of multi-party politics. Upon taking power from the military, however, he soon strove to drive the SLPP from competitive politics in various general elections, using violence and intimidation. To gain support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.
After the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, Stevens declared a state of emergency after disturbance in the provinces.
Stevens had campaigned on a platform of socialist principles. However, when he became Prime Minister he abandoned his pre-election promises and employed an authoritarian model of governance.[31] Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone military were greatly disappointed but none could confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens. Bangura was a magnetic and popular figure among Sierra Leoneans. The army was devoted to him and this made him potentially dangerous to Steven's new agenda in the shifting political climate of Sierra Leone. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with conspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens government. He was convicted and sentenced to death by execution. On 29 March 1970, Bangura was hanged at the Kissy Road in central Freetown. In March 1971, a group of senior military officials attempted an unsuccessful military coup. The coup leaders were convicted and executed, including several senior officers in the army and some senior government officials.
On 19 April 1971, parliament declared Sierra Leone a republic, with Siaka Stevens as president and Sorie Ibrahim Koroma as Vice President. Under the APC regimes headed by Stevens, the Limba, Stevens' own ethnic group and the Creoles , enjoyed strong influence in the government and civil service. Another major ethnic group, the Temne joined the Mende in opposition to the APC government. But after Stevens appointed an ethnic Temne, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma as vice-president , the Temne appeared to have emerged as an influential group in the APC government. Guinean troops requested by Stevens to support his government were in the country from 1971 to 1973. In May 1973, general elections were held throughout the country, but the main opposition, the SLPP, boycotted the 1973 general election, alleging widespread intimidation and proceedural obstruction.
In 1973 president Stevens and president William Tolbert of Liberia signed a treaty forming the Mano River Union to facilitate trade between Sierra Leone and Liberia – with Guinea joining in 1980 under president Sekou Toure. In 1975 Sierra Leone joined the Economic Community of West African States (commonly known as ECOWAS).
An alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna, Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted for allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.
In early 1977 a major anti-government demonstration by students and youth occurred throughout the country against the APC government and deteriorating economic conditions. But the demonstration was put down by the police and the army.
In the national parliamentary election of May 1977, the APC won 74 seats and the main opposition, the SLPP, won 15. The SLPP condemned the election, alleged widespread vote-rigging and voter intimidation. In 1978, the APC dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 referendum made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone. This move lead to another major demonstration in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and the police.
Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but, on a positive note, he reduced the ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominating APC government.
[edit] Momoh administration
Siaka Stevens retired in November, 1985 after being in power for 18 years, but continued to be chairman of the APC. The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, the commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens' own choice to succeed him. As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group. Joseph Saidu Momoh was elected President in a one-party parliament as the only contesting candidate. Momoh was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president in Freetown on 28 November 1985 with Francis Minah (an ethnic Mende) as Vice president. A one party parliamentary elections between APC members were held in May, 1986.
President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens. The next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants."
After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President Francis Minah, who was removed from office, convicted for plotting the coup, and executed by hanging in 1989 along with 5 others.
[edit] Multi-party constitution and Revolutionary United Front rebellion
In October 1990, due to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reform, president Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to review the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. By November 1991, political oppostion became active once again in Sierra Leone. In late November 1991, president Momoh proposed a multi-party presidential and parliamentary elections to be held in the country in October 1992.
There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. The APC was also alleged to have been hoarding arms and planning a violent campaign against the opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. Several senior government officials in the APC administration like Dr. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Dr. Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda and Dr. Sama Banya resigned from the APC government respectively to resuscitate the previously disbanded SLPP. While other senior government officials like Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo and Desmond Luke resigned from the APC and formed their own respective political parties to challenge the ruling APC.
Civil war broke out, mainly due to government corruption and mismanagement of diamond resources and abuse of power by various governments since independence from Britain (Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Report). The brutal civil war going on in neighbouring Liberia played an undeniable role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—then leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly helped form the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Saybana Sankoh, an ethnic Temne from Tonkolili District in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor’s aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Freetown who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia.In 2003 Foday Sankoh was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for war crimes and crimes against humanity and died under UN custody before the trials could be concluded. Charles Taylor, who is a former president of Liberia, is currently in the International Criminal Court (ICC) in the Hague facing charges of war crimes committed by Sankoh's RUF in Sierra Leone. Taylor is the first former president to face the ICC.
The RUF, led by Sankoh and backed by Taylor, launched its first attack in villages in Kailahun District in Eastern Sierra Leone from Liberia on 23 March 1991. The government of Sierra Leone, overwhelmed by a crumbling economy and corruption, as well as a demoralised army, was unable to put up significant resistance against the incursion of the RUF. Within a month of entering Sierra Leone from Liberia, the RUF controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, including the cash crop production areas of Kailahun and the government diamond mines in Kono District. Forced recruitment of child soldiers was also an early feature of the rebel strategy.
[edit] NPRC Junta
On 29 April 1992, a group of seven young soldiers in the Sierra Leonean army, apparently frustrated by the government's failure to deal with the rebels and a revolt over the payment of salaries, launched a military coup which sent president Momoh into exile in Guinea.[32] The young soldiers were Second Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, an ethnic Kissi, Captain Valentine E. M. Strasser, an ethnic Creole, Captain Solomon A. J. Musa, an ethnic Mende, Captain Samuel Komba Kambo, an ethnic Kono, Captain Julius Maada Bio, an ethnic Mende, Captain Komba Mondeh, an ethnic Kono and Colonel Yahya Kanu, an ethnic Temne and Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, an ethnic Mende, who was said to have insisted to his colleagues on the second day of the standoff that theirs would no longer be a revolt over pay but a "Revolution" to overthrow the APC and the system of One Party Politics. Sandy was the only soldier killed during the coup, allegedly by his adopted uncle and member of the APC Colonel S.I.M. Turay. Turay was declared wanted for the murder of Sandy by the NPRC junta, but managed to make it across to Guinea where he joined the exiled president. Colonel Yahya Kanu was the very popular commander of the fearless Tiger Battalion which was at the forefront in the war against the RUF under president Momoh. The soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC). Though he was not formally declared head of the new junta, and even refused to accept in an interview with the BBC Focus on Africa Program that the revolt was a coup by his men, Colonel Kanu was seen as the defacto leader of the NPRC. Kanu was later arrested and imprisoned by his junior officers, who accused him of trying to negotiate a compromise with the toppled APC administration. Kanu's arrest divided the army into two rival groups, namely, his Tiger Battalion and Tom Nyuma's Cobra Battalion and their respective supporters. On 29 April 1992, Valentine Strasser took over as leader and chairman of the NPRC and Head of State of Sierra Leone. Strasser became the youngest Head of State in the world, just three days after his 27th birthday. 25 year-old S.A.J. Musa, a close friend of Strasser and an officer in Kanu's feared Tiger Battalion, was named Vice-Chairman of the NPRC. Many Sierra Leoneans nationwide rushed into the streets to celebrate the NPRC's takeover from the 23-year dictatorial APC regime, which they perceived as corrupt. The NPRC junta immediately suspended the 1991 Constitution, declared a state of emergency, banned all political parties, limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press, and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded. The NPRC Junta maintained relations with ECOWAS and strengthened support for ECOMOG troops based in Sierra Leone which was fighting in Liberia. In his first speech as head of state the young Strasser reassured the world of meeting his country's obligations to her creditors, and making a commitment to the IMF and the World Bank to accelerate the economic reform process started by Momoh's government in 1989 aimed at stabilizing the severely crippled economy and shortly after that went on to negotiate a Structural Adjustment Program with these two institutions. The junta formed the Supreme Council of State (SCS) made up of only the leading figures of the NPRC including the six ring leaders and chaired by Strasser himself. They also appointed an advisory council which consisted of retired senior civil servants and academics, chaired by a retired UN administrator Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, who were all regarded as untainted by the 23 years of alleged APC mismanagement, corruption and abuse of power.
In December 1992, an alleged coup attempt to topple the NPRC administration of Strasser and release the detained Colonel Yayah Kanu was foiled. Sgt. Lamin Bangura (an ethnic Temne) and some junior army officers of the Tiger Battalion were identified to be behind the alleged coup plot. It led to the execution of seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army, including Sgt. Bangura and Yayah Kanu, and some senior members of the overthrown APC government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison including the notorious Inspector General of Police James Bambay Kamara, key former APC ministers, senior party members and thugs. By mid 1993 captain Strasser announced a plan to hand over the government to civilian rule by 1996. Dr. James Jonah, who was by then Deputy Secretary General of the United Nations, was appointed by the NPRC Junta as the chairman of the new Interim National Electoral Commission (INEC)which was in charge of the demarcation of electoral boundaries and voters registration. In 1994 the NPRC junta proposed a change in the age restriction in the 1991 Sierra Leone constitution which stated only Sierra Leoneans over the age of 40 are eligible for the presidency, thus excluding Strasser and others in the NPRC.
The NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh-led APC government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1995 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm Executive Outcomes (see www.petercusters.nl/file/60). Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone’s borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone. However, Captains Tom Nyuma (Secretary of State East) and Komba Mondeh (Secretary of State Defence), who were regarded outside Freetown as the only "fighters" in the NPRC who dared to lead the troops to attack RUF strongholds in the East and South, were widely credited for these successes against the RUF. During this time corruption had erupted within the senior ranks of both the NPRC and the military, and the junta had become divided between SAJ Musa, on the one side, against Nyuma and Mondeh, on the other. SAJ Musa had become very popular in Freetown for fighting grafts and enforcing strict discipline in the public service and his last-Saturday-of-the-month city cleaning exercises. Nyuma, nick named "The Ranger", was seen across the country as the daredevil of the NPRC and the "protector of the East". There was great suspicion among the SCS members that SAJ Musa was planning a coup to topple his friend Strasser, whom he accused of being subservient to the wishes of Nyuma and Mondeh. On 5 July 1995, under pressure from Nyuma, Captain Strasser dismissed SAJ Musa as deputy chairman of the NPRC and appointed an ally of Tom Nyuma, the Secretary of State for Information and Broadcasting Captain Julius Maada Bio, to the position. Musa was arrested by a group of soldiers led by Nyuma's men, and was briefly placed under house arrest in Freetown before he was sent on exile to the UK. Senior NPRC members, including Bio (who by now had promoted himself to Brigadier), Nyuma and Mondeh (both promoted to Colonel), were becoming increasingly unhappy with Strasser's (who remained Captain) handling of the preparation for the pending elections, the peace negotiation with the RUF, and the transition to democratic civilian rule.
In January 1996, after nearly four years in power, Captain V.E.M Strasser was ousted in a bloodless "palace" coup led by his NPRC deputy Brigadier General Julius Maada Bio with the support of several senior NPRC members including both Tom Nyuma and Komba Mondeh. Bio claimed that Strasser was attempting to unilaterally amend the age restriction aspect of the constitution in order to perpetuate his hold on power.
[edit] Return of democracy and civil war
Bio reinstated the Constitution and called for general elections. In the second round of presidential elections in early 1996, Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, an ethnic Mandingo and the candidate of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), won 59% of the vote, over John Karefa-Smart, an ethnic Sherbro and the candidate of the United National People's Party (UNPP) who won 41%. Bio fulfilled his promise of a return to civilian rule, and handed power to Kabbah. President Tejan Kabbah's SLPP party also won a majority of the seats in Parliament.
For years Sierra Leonean soldiers in the lower ranks were not paid a good salary and they were denied privileges and benefits. Soldiers were killed at the war front and no provision was made for their families. Major Johnny Paul Koroma, an officer in the Sierra Leone army who hail from the Limba ethnic group, was allegedly involved in an attempt to overthrow the government of president Kabbah. He was arrested, tried, convicted, and imprisoned at Freetown's Pademba Road Prison. On 25 May 1997, a group of seventeen junior officers in the Sierra Leone army, loyal to Major Koroma, who called themselves the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) led by Corporal Tamba Gborie and Sergent Alex Tamba Brima, both ethnic Kono, launched a military coup which sent president Kabbah into exile in Guinea.[33] Corporal Tamba Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarter in Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation, and to alert all soldiers throughout the nation on guard duty. The AFRC released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State of the country with Corporal Tamba Gborie as deputy in command of the AFRC. Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in their thousands. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy Defense Minister Samuel Hinga Norman remained loyal to President Kabbah. The Kamajors defended Bo, the country's second largest city from the Junter and continue their attack against the AFRC and RUF in south-eastern Sierra Leone
After 10 months in office, the junta was ousted by the Nigeria-led ECOMOG forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in March 1998. Hundreds of civilians who had been accused of helping the AFRC government were illegally detained. Courts-martial were held for soldiers accused of assisting the AFRC government. Twenty-four of these were found guilty and were executed without appeal in October 1998. On 6 January 1999, AFRC made another unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government, killing an estimated 3,000 people, raping women and girls, abducting and subsequently conscripting children, amputating limbs, and destroying much of the property in and around Freetown.
In October, the United Nations agreed to send peacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the UN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly all Nigerian forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, Sankoh's forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken hostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government.
The situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in Operation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and finally restore order, and the British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war.
Elements of the British Army, together with administrators and politicians remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement.
Between 1991 and 2001, about 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes, and many became refugees in Guinea and Liberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May, Kabbah was reelected president. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.
[edit] Current government
In August 2007, Sierra Leone held presidential and parliamentary elections. However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one votes majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and Ernest Bai Koroma, the candidate of the APC and ethnically a half Limba and half Temne from the north was elected president.
By 2007, there had been an increase in the number of drug cartels, many from Colombia, using Sierra Leone as a base to ship drugs on to Europe.[25] It was feared that this might lead to increased corruption and violence and turn the country, like neighbouring Guinea-Bissau, into a narco state. However, the new government of president Koroma quickly amended the laws against drug trafficking in the country, updating the existing legislation from those inherited at independence in 1961, to address the international concerns, increasing punishment for offenders both in terms of higher, if not prohibitive, fines, lengthier prison terms and provision for possible extradition of offenders wanted elsewhere including to the United States of America.
[edit] Geography and climate
Sierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, between the 7th and 10th parallels north of the equator. Sierra Leone is bordered by Guinea to the north and northeast, Liberia to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.[34]
The country has a total area of 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi), divided into a land area of 71,620 km2 (27,653 sq mi) and water of 120 km2 (46 sq mi).[2] The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the plateau is interspersed with high mountains, where Mount Bintumani reaches 1,948 m (6,391 ft), the highest point in the country. The upper part of the drainage basin of the Moa River is located in the south of this region.
The centre of the country is a region of lowland plains, containing forests, bush and farmland,[34] that occupies about 43% of Sierra Leone's land area. The northern section of this has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion, while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland. In the west Sierra Leone has some 400 km (249 mi) of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lying Guinean mangroves swamp. The national capital Freetown sits on a coastal peninsula, situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbor, the world's third largest natural harbour.
[edit] Climate
The climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: the rainy season from May to November, and a dry season from December to May, which includes harmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off the Sahara Desert and the night-time temperature can be as low as 16 °C (60.8 °F). The average temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and varies from around 26 °C (78.8 °F) to 36 °C (96.8 °F) during the year.[35][36]
[edit] Environment
Logging, mining, slash and burn, and deforestation for land conversion - such as cattle grazing - have dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. Correspondingly the habitat for the African Wild Dog, Lycaon pictus, has been decreased, such that this canid is deemed to have been extirpated in Sierra Leone.[37]
Until 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system due to a brutal civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war.[38] On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.[38]
The Environmental Justice Foundation has documented how the number of illegal fishing vessels in Sierra Leone's waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war.[39]
In June 2005, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and Bird Life International agreed to support a conservation-sustainable development project in the Gola Forest in southeastern Sierra Leone,[40] an important surviving fragment of rainforest in Sierra Leone.
[edit] Government and politics
Sierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current system of government in Sierra Leone, established under the 1991 Constitution, is modelled on the following structure of government: the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.[41]
Within the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in Parliament, which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the Chief Justice is head.
The president is the head of state, the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and the Sierra Leone Police. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.
To be elected president of Sierra Leone, a candidate must gain at least 55% of the vote. If no candidate gets 55%, there is to be a second-round runoff between the top two candidates.
The current president of Sierra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, who was sworn in on 17 September 2007, shortly after being declared the winner of a tense run-off election over the incumbent Vice president, Solomon Berewa of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP).[42]
Next to the president is the Vice president, who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfill his or her duties. The vice president is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. Sierra Leone's current vice president is Samuel Sam-Sumana, sworn in on 17 September 2007.
The Parliament of Sierra Leone is unicameral, with 124 seats. Each of the country's fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by paramount chiefs from each of the country's 12 administrative districts.
The current parliament in the August 2007 Parliamentary elections is made up of three political parties. The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 11 August 2007. The All People's Congress (APC), won 59 of 112 parliamentary seats; the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won 43; and the People's Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC) won 10. To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.[41]
Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), and the ruling All People's Congress (APC), although other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant supports.
The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current Sierra Leone's Chief Justice is Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh, who was appointed by President Ernest Bai Koroma and took office on 25 January 2008 upon her confirmation by parliament. She is the first woman in the history of Sierra Leone to hold such position.[43]
[edit] Foreign relations
The Sierra Leone Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations, headed by Minister of Foreign Affairs Zainab Hawa Bangura is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Libya, Iran, and Cuba. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former British colonies through membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.[44] The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.
Former President Siaka Stevens' government had sought closer relations with other West African countries under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) a policy continued by the current. Sierra Leone, along with Liberia and Guinea form the Mano River Union (MRU) primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional economic integration between the three countries.[45]
Sierra Leone is also a member of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, the African Union, the African Development Bank (AFDB), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).[46] Sierra Leone is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98).
[edit] Provinces and districts
The Republic of Sierra Leone is composed of three provinces: the Northern Province, Southern Province and the Eastern Province and one other region called the Western Area. The provinces are further divided into 12 districts, and the districts are further divided into chiefdoms, except for the Western Area.
| District | Capital | Area km2 | Province | Population (2004 census)[47] | Population (2008 estimates) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bombali District | Makeni | 7,985 | Northern Province | 408,390 | 424,100[48] |
| Koinadugu District | Kabala | 12,121 | 265,758 | ||
| Port Loko District | Port Loko | 5,719 | 455,746 | 483,752[49] | |
| Tonkolili District | Magburaka | 7,003 | 347,197 | 370,425[50] | |
| Kambia District | Kambia | 3,108 | 270,462 | 299,725[51] | |
| Kenema District | Kenema | 6,053 | Eastern Province | 497,948 | 522,656[52] |
| Kono District | Koidu Town | 5,641 | 335,401 | ||
| Kailahun District | Kailahun | 3,859 | 358,190 | 389,253[53] | |
| Bo District | Bo | 5,473.6[54] | Southern Province | 463,668 | 527,131[55] |
| Bonthe District | Mattru Jong | 3,468 | 129,947 | 137,155[56] | |
| Pujehun District | Gandorhun | 4,105 | 228,392 | 262,073[57] | |
| Moyamba District | Moyamba | 6,902 | 260,910 | ||
| Western Area Urban District | Freetown | 3,568 | Western Area | 1,272,873 | 1,473,873 |
| Western Area Rural District | Freetown | 4,175 | 174,249 | 205,400 |
[edit] Major cities
| City | 2004 census[47] | Current population estimate |
|---|---|---|
| Freetown | 772,873 | 1,070,200[58] |
| Bo | 149,957 | 215,474.[59] |
| Kenema | 128,402 | 164,125.[60] |
| Koidu Town | 80,025 | 111,800[61] |
| Makeni | 82,840 | 105,900[61] |
- The populations quoted above for the five largest cities are estimates from the sources cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that Magburaka should be included in the above list, but one source estimates the population at only 14,915,[62] whilst another puts it as high as 85,313.[63]
[edit] Economy
 |
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Sierra Leone is slowly emerging from a protracted civil war and is showing signs of a successful transition. Investor and consumer confidence continue to rise, adding impetus to the country’s economic recovery. There is greater freedom of movement and the successful re-habitation and resettlement of residential areas.
Rich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top 10 diamond producing nations in the world. Mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.
Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between $250–300 million US$. Some of that is smuggled, where it is possibly used for money laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund, which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.
Sierra Leone is perhaps best known for its blood diamonds that were mined and sold to De Beers and other diamond conglomerates during the civil war, and whose monies were used to buy the weapons that fueled the atrocities of the civil war.[citation needed] In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials.
By the 1990s economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country’s civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover. Much of the recovery will depend on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.
Sierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile, a titanium ore used as paint pigment and welding rod coatings. Sierra Rutile Limited, owned by a consortium of United States and European investors, began commercial mining operations near the city of Bonthe, in the Southern Province, in early 1979. It was then the largest non-petroleum US investment in West Africa. The export of 88,000 tons realized $75 million in export earnings in 1990. In 1990, the company and the government made a new agreement on the terms of the company's concession in Sierra Leone. Rutile and bauxite mining operations were suspended when rebels invaded the mining sites in 1995, but exports resumed in 2005.
About two-thirds of the population engages in subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 52.5% of national income. The government is trying to increase food and cash crop production and upgrade small farmer skills. The government works with several foreign donors to operate integrated rural development and agricultural projects.
Despite its successes and development, the Sierra Leone economy still faces significant challenges. There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slacking and donors have urged its advancement.
[edit] Currency
Sierra Leone’s currency is the Leone. The central bank of the country is the Bank of Sierra Leone which is located in the capital, Freetown.
Sierra Leone operates a floating exchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange bureaux and most hotels.
Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked automated teller machines that accept Visa cards in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.
[edit] Demographics
The 2009 UN estimate of Sierra Leone's population is 6.4 million. Freetown, with an estimated population of 1,070,200, is the capital, largest city, and the hub of the economy, commercial, educational and cultural center of the country. Bo is the second city with an estimated population of up to 269,000 (149,957 in the 2004 census). Other cities with an estimated population over 100,000 are Kenema, Koidu Town, and Makeni.
Although English is the official language[6] spoken at schools, government administration, and by the media, Krio (language derived from English and several African languages and native to the Sierra Leone Krio people) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. The Krio language is spoken by 97%[2] of the country's population and unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[1] In December 2002, Sierra Leone’s President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah named Bengali as an "official language" in recognition of the work of 5,300 troops from Bangladesh in the peace-keeping force.[64][65]
According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700 refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to Liberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone, nearly all were Liberian.[66]
The life expectancy of Sierra Leone is 41 years.[67]
[edit] Religion
Followers of Islam are estimated to comprise 60% of Sierra Leone's population. Muslims predominate in all of the country's three provinces and plus the Western Area, though formerly they were concentrated in the north, with the south being mainly Christian. Followers of Christianity comprise about 30% of the population, and those following only African indigenous religion about 10%, though many inhabitants combine traditional beliefs with one of the newer faiths.[68][69][70] There are small numbers of adherents to other faiths such as Bahāʾī, Hinduism, and Judaism.[71]
The Sierra Leone constitution provides freedom of religion and the government generally protects this right and does not tolerate its abuse. Unlike many other African countries, the religious diversity of Sierra Leone has seldom led to conflict.
[edit] Ethnic groups
| Ethnic groups of Sierra Leone |
|---|
| Mende |
| Temne |
| Limba |
| Kono |
| Mandingo |
| Krio |
| Fula |
| Kuranko |
| Sherbro |
| Susu |
| Loko |
| Kissi |
| Yalunka |
| Vai |
The Sierra Leone government officially recognizes fourteen ethnic groups,[72] each with its own language and custom. Unlike most African nations, Sierra Leone has no serious ethnic divisions and no serious religious divisions. People often married across tribal and religious boundaries.
The two largest and most dominant are the Mende and Temne, each comprises 30% of the population[73] (about 1,888,000 members each). The Mende predominate in the South-Eastern Provinces; the Temne likewise predominate in the Northern Province. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north, dominated by the Temne and the south-east dominated by the Mende.
The third largest ethnic group are the Limba at (8.5%) of the population and they are a close ally of the Temne. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly in Bombali District and they are one of the earliest inhabitant of the country. Sierra Leone's first president Siaka Stevens and the country's second president Joseph Saidu Momoh are ethnic Limba.
The fourth largest ethnic group are the Kono people at around (7.6%) of the population and they are primarily found in Kono District in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are primarily diamond miners and farmers.
After the Kono, are the Mandingo (also known as Mandinka) at (7.4%) (they are the descendants of the Mandinka traders from Guinea who immigrated to Sierra Leone between 1840 to about 1898). The Mandinka predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country, and they are the largest inhabitant of the large towns, most notably Kabal and Falaba in Koinadugu District in the north and Yengema, Kono District in the east of the country. Historically, the Mandinka intense rivals have been the Temne and Limba. Sierra Leone's third president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah is an ethnic Mandingo.
After the Mandinka, are the Fula at (6%) (descendants of 17th- and 18th-century Fulani settlers from the Fouta Djalon region of Guinea) they live primarily in the north and the Western Area of Sierra Leone. Some notable ethnic Fula include the country current chief justice Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh
Behind the Fula, are the Creole (at 5%) (descendants of freed West Indians slaves from the West Indies and freed African American slaves from the United States which landed in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) are primarily found in the capital city of Freetown and its surrounding Western Area. Creole culture is unlike that of all other ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, and it is typical of Western culture and ideals. Former Sierrer Leone's Head of State Valentine Strasser is an ethnic Creole.
Much smaller ethnic groups are the Kuranko, in the north; the Loko in the north, with the Susu and Yalunka in the far north in Kambia District around the border with Guinea. The Kissi ) and the much smaller group of Vai are further inland in Kailahun District in the East next to the border with Liberia. On the coast in Bonthe District in the south are the Sherbro.
In the past, Sierra Leoneans were noted for their educational achievements, trading activity, entrepreneurial skills, and arts and crafts work, particularly wood carving. Many are part of larger ethnic networks extending into several countries, which link West African states in the area. But the level of education and infrastructure has declined sharply over the last 30 years.[74]
[edit] Education
Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years at primary level (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education,[75] but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible.[76] Two thirds of the adult population of the country are illiterate.[77] The Sierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools and in 2001 67 percent of all school-age children were out of school.[76] The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrolment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.[78] Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and compulsory in government-sponsored public schools.
The country has two universities: Fourah Bay College, founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa),[79] and Njala University, primarily located in Bo District. Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.[80] Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.
[edit] Health
Healthcare is provided by the government, among others. Since April 2010, the government has instituted the Free Health Care Initiative which commits to free services for pregnant and lactating women and children under 5. This policy has been supported by increased aid from the United Kingdom and is recognised as a progressive move that other African countries may folllow.[81] The country has a very high infant mortality and a very low life expectancy. The maternal death rates are also the highest in the world, at 2,000 deaths per 100,000 live births. The country suffers from epidemic outbreaks of diseases including yellow fever, cholera, lassa fever and meningitis.[82] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6 percent, higher than the world average of 1 percent but lower than the average of 6.1 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa.[83]
[edit] Military
The Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, on the basis of elements of the former British Royal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces currently consist of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,[84] the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.[85] The president of Sierra Leone is the Commander in Chief of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defense Minister is Ret. Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. The Military of Sierra Leone also has a Chief of the Defence Staff who is a uniformed military official responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military.[86] Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired Major General Edward Sam M’boma on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defense Staff of the Military.[87]
Before Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961 the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the National Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).[88] The RSLMF remained a single service organization until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. It then remained largely unchanged for 16 years until in 1995 when Defence Headquarters was established and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. This gave the need for the RSLMF to be renamed the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).
[edit] Law enforcement
Law enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of the Sierra Leone Police (SLP). Sierra Leone Police was established by the British colony back in 1894 and is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. The key mission of the Sierra Leone Police include to prevent crime, to protect life and property, to detect and prosecute offenders, to maintain public order, to ensure safety and security, to enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force and is appointed by the President of Sierra Leone. Each one of Sierra Leone's 14 districts is headed by a District Police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. The Districts Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. The current Inspector General of Police is Brima Acha Kamara who was appointed to the position by former president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah.
[edit] Media
Media in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the first printing press in Africa at the start of the nineteenth century. A strong journalistic tradition developed with the creation of a number of newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the nineteenth century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978.
Print media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown, partially due to the low levels of literacy in the country.[89] In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.[90] Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low due to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.[89]
Radio is the most-popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily.[89] These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the Western Area having the highest levels and Kailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage. The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) runs one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. Content includes news of UN activities and human rights information, as well as music and news. The UN missions will withdraw in 2008 and the UN Radio's future is uncertain. There is also a government station run by the SLBS that transmits on FM and short-wave. FM relays of BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America are also broadcast.
Outside the capital Freetown television is not watched by a great many people. There are two national, free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBS and the other a private station, ABC Television-Africa (ABC). In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine year old sub-saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of wireless services across the country. There are nine Internet Service Providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has a city wide wireless network and Internet cafes and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.
The Sierra Leone constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and freedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice. Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.[91][92] Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal Libel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.[93] In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in,[93] but in 2007, Sierra Leone was ranked as having the 121st least-free press in the world, with the press less-free, in comparison to other countries, than in 2006.[94]
[edit] Music of Sierra Leone
see also:Palm-wine music, Gumbe, Afropop
[edit] Transportation
There are a number of systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports.
[edit] Air
There are ten regional airports in Sierra Leone, and one international airport. The Lungi International Airport located in the coastal town of Lungi in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen Heliports in Freetown by hovercraft, ferry or a helicopter. Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has paved runways longer than 3,047m. The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways 914 to 1,523 metres long; the remaining two have shorter runways.
[edit] Prohibition from E.U. air operations
This country appears on the E.U. list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline which is Sierra Leone registered may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards.[95]
[edit] Water
Sierra Leone has the third largest natural harbour in the world, where international shipping berth at the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km are navigable year-round. Major port cities are Bonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island and Pepel.
[edit] Highways
There are 11,700 kilometres (about 7,270 Miles) of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 936 km (about 581 miles) are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to Conakry, Guinea, and Monrovia, Liberia.
[edit] Sports
[edit] Football
Football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. The national football team, popularly known as the Leone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but participated in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. The country's national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) broadcasts the live match, along with several radio stations throughout the country. Some well known Sierra Leonean footballers include the team captain Mohamed Kallon, Julius Gibrilla Woobay, Al Bangura, Paul Kpaka, Rodney Strasser, Ahmed Deen, Samuel Barlay, Kewullay Conteh Albert Jarrett and Kei Kamara
The Sierra Leone National Premier League is the top football league, controlled by the Sierra Leone Football Association. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool, but Kallon F.C. has enjoyed contemporary success. Kallon F.C. won the Premier League and the Sierra Leonean FA Cup in 2006, and eliminated 2006 Nigerian Premier League Champions Ocean Boys FC in the 2007 CAF Champions League first qualifying round, but later lost to ASEC Mimosas of Ivory Coast in the second qualifying round for the group stage.
The Sierra Leone U-17 football team, nicknamed the Sierra Stars, finished as runner-up at the 2003 African U-17 Championship in Swaziland, but came in last place in their group at the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Finland.
[edit] Cricket
The Sierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to Mozambique, and just missed a promotion to Division Two.
[edit] Basketball
The Sierra Leone national basketball team represents Sierra Leone in international men's basketball competitions and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Basketball Federation. The squad is mostly home-based, with a few foreign players.
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ a b c https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/181/
- ^ a b c d e f "Sierra Leone". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sl.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ a b c d "Sierra Leone". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=724&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=81&pr.y=10. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ^ a b Encarta Encyclopedia. ""Sierra Leone"". "Sierra Leone". http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563681/Sierra_Leone.html. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ The World Guide. ""Sierra Leone Geography"". http://sbs.com.au/theworldnews/Worldguide/index.php3?country=178&header=3. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ a b "Sierra Leone Overview". United Nations Development Programme Sierra Leone. http://www.sl.undp.org/sloverview.htm. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
- ^ Kup (1961), p. 116
- ^ a b Classic Encyclopedia. ""Sierra Leone"". http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Sierra_Leone. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ Room (1995), p. 346-7
- ^ a b Kingfisher Geography encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-582-9. Page 180
- ^ History World. ""History of Sierra Leone"". http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad45. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ Sillinger (2003), p. 104
- ^ Keen (2005), p. 268
- ^ The Special Court for Sierra Leone. ""About the Special Court for Sierra Leone"". http://www.sc-sl.org/about.html. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ David Tam-Baryoh, Worldpress.org. ""Corruption in Sierra Leone"". http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/352.cfm. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ Reporters without Borders. ""Media body curbs press freedom"". http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=3775. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ Countries and Their Cultures. ""Culture of Sierra Leone"". http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Sierra-Leone.html. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica. ""Sierra Leone History"". http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-55344/Sierra-Leone. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Nations. ""Sierra Leone - History"". http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sierra-Leone-HISTORY.html. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
- ^ Utting (1931), p. 33
- ^ Utting (1931), p. 8
- ^ LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 22. ISBN 9780761423348
- ^ Sibthorpe, A. B. C. (1970). The History of Sierra Leone. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 9780714617695
- ^ National Maritime Museum. ""Sir John Hawkins"". http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=BHC2755. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
- ^ a b "Sierra Leone’s struggle for progress". The Economist. http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12775514. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Harris, Sheldon H. Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) pp. 32-33, and especially note 15 on p. 140
- ^ www.sierra-leone.org. Retrieved on 17 January 2007.
- ^ Martin Killson, Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 1966, p 60. Also pp 106, 107, 110, 111, 186-188 on other riots and strikes.
- ^ a b c d Advocate Nations of Africa: Sierra Leone[dead link]
- ^ "Sierra Leone's Leader; Milton Augustus Strieby Margai, New York Times, April 28, 1961". Select.nytimes.com. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30816FE3B5912738DDDA10A94DC405B818AF1D3&scp=1&sq=milton+margai&st=p. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ The Final Report of the Truth & Reconciliation Commission of Sierra Leone.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "THE MAY 25, 1997 COUP IN SIERRA LEONE - THE TRC REPORT". Sierraherald.com. http://www.sierraherald.com/may251997-trcreport.htm. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ a b LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). p. 7. ISBN 9780761423348
- ^ Blinker, Linda (September 2006). COUNTRY ENVIRONMENT PROFILE (CEP) SIERRA LEONE. Freetown, Sierra Leone: CONSORTIUM PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF. p. 12. http://www.delsle.ec.europa.eu/en/whatsnew/Docs/Final%20Report%20Country%20Environmental%20Profile%20(CEP)%20SL%2019-OCT-06.pdf. Retrieved 25 September 2008
- ^ LeVert, Suzanne (2006). Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone. Marshall Cavendish (published 2007). pp. 8–9. ISBN 9780761423348
- ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg
- ^ a b Rhett Butler. 2005. Sierra Leone: Environmental Profile, mongabay.com
- ^ Environmental Justice Foundation "Sierra Leone", 17 September 2009
- ^ BBC News, Sierra Leone sets up forest park, 10 December 2007
- ^ a b http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Sierra_Leone.htm
- ^ "Country profile: Sierra Leone". BBC News. 18 June 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1061561.stm. Retrieved 5 August 2008.
- ^ http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_20057492.shtml
- ^ Background Note: Sierra Leone. U.S. Department of State. October 2008. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm. Retrieved 7 October 2008
- ^ Welcome to the Mano River Union Website. Mano River Union. 2006. http://www.manoriverunion.org/. Retrieved 7 October 2008
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations. Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. 2007. http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_2mfa.htm. Retrieved 7 October 2008
- ^ a b "FINAL RESULTS 2004 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS" (PDF). Statistics Sierra Leone. p. 3. http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_4/Statistics%20Sierra%20Leone/ssl_final_results.pdf. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
- ^ World Gazetteer: Bombali - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6644
- ^ World Gazetteer: Tonkolili - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ World Gazetteer: Kambia - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ World Gazetteer: Kenema - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ World Gazetteer: Kailahun - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ "Bo District". Sierra Leone Encyclopedia (UN and Government of Sierra Leone). July 2007. http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/3_dist/3_1a_bo.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
- ^ World Gazetteer: Bo - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6637
- ^ World Gazetteer: Pujehun - profile of geographical entity including name variants at www.world-gazetteer.com
- ^ a b [2][dead link]
- ^ http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=352708826
- ^ http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=352384881
- ^ a b "Largest Cities in Sierra Leone". Mongabay.com. http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/Sierra%20Leone.htm. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Population Of Magburaka". Population-of.com. http://population-of.com/en/Sierra-Leone/02/Magburaka. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Exaf". Exaf.eu. http://www.exaf.eu/exaf/page.php?pid=210. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Sierra Leone makes Bengali official language". http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_29-12-2002_pg9_6. Retrieved 29 December 2002.
- ^ Zahurul Alam (27 December 2002). "Bangla Made One of The Official Languages of Sierra Leone". http://www.voanews.com/bangla/archive/2002-12/a-2002-12-27-3-Bangla.cfm?mod.
- ^ "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. http://www.refugees.org/survey.
- ^ "Sierra Leone's failing health". BBC News. 4 January 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/newsnight/6231905.stm. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "For Equality in the Family". Musawah. http://www.musawah.org/np_sierraleone.asp. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sl.html
- ^ "Religions - Sierra Leone". Nationsencyclopedia.com. 26 August 2009. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sierra-Leone-RELIGIONS.html. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Sierra Leone :: Religion - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543356/Sierra-Leone/274784/Religion. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ About Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. 2007. http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_1gosl.htm. Retrieved 27 July 2008
- ^ "Ethnic groups - Sierra Leone - area". Nationsencyclopedia.com. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sierra-Leone-ETHNIC-GROUPS.html. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ ""Sierra Leone (02/08)"". "U.S. Department of State". http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ Wang, Lianqin (2007). Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities. World Bank Publications. p. 2. ISBN 0821368680
- ^ a b "Sierra Leone". 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2009 - Proportion of international migrant stocks residing in countries with very high levels of human development (%)". Hdrstats.undp.org. http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/20.html. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Wang, Lianqin (2007). Education in Sierra Leone: Present Challenges, Future Opportunities. World Bank Publications. p. 1 and 3. ISBN 0821368680
- ^ Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007. Nexus Strategic Partnerships Ltd. 2006. ISBN 0954962915. http://books.google.com/?id=ID5XqeV4q10C&pg=PT326&dq=sierra+leone+%22Fourah+Bay+College%22+%22west+africa%22+oldest&cd=12#v=onepage&q=sierra%20leone%20%22Fourah%20Bay%20College%22%20%22west%20africa%22%20oldest.
- ^ Njala University College (Nuc). Sierra Leone: Sierra Leone Encyclopedia. July. http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_7njala.htm. Retrieved 25 June 2008
- ^ "Sierra Leone". The Kambia Appeal. http://www.kambia.org.uk/information_about/sierra_leone.htm. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ "The Primary Health Care Hand Book Policing" (doc). Ministry of Health & Sanitation. 25 May 2007. http://www.health.sl/drwebsite/publish/healthcare.shtml. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ "2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic" (PDF). UNAIDS. 2006. http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/Default.asp. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ Armed forces (Sierra Leone) Jane's Sentinel Security Assessments, June 2008
- ^ "Summary (Sierra Leone) - Jane's World Air Forces". Janes.com. 30 July 2010. http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Air-Forces/Summary-Sierra-Leone.html. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ http://www.news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200511647.shtml
- ^ New Vision, Freetown, 15 September 2008
- ^ Partners: Sierra Leone Armed Forces
- ^ a b c Media use, and attitudes towards media in Sierra Leone:A comprehensive baseline study. BBC World Service Trust and Search for Common Ground. June 2007. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/media_report_2007.pdf. Retrieved 19 April 2007
- ^ Jalloh, Tanu (28 December 2007). Sierra Leone: Newspaper Development. Freetown, Sierra Leone: Concord Times. http://allafrica.com/stories/200712310637.html. Retrieved 19 April 2008
- ^ Wilson, Harry (2005). Press Freedoms and Human Rights:2005 Year End Press Freedom Brief. Commonwealth Press Union. http://www.cpu.org.uk/pf_2005_review.html. Retrieved 20 April 2008
- ^ Sierra Leone - Annual report 2006. Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom. 2006. http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400. Retrieved 20 April 2008
- ^ a b Sierra Leone - Annual report 2006. Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom. 2006. http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400. Retrieved 20 April 2008
- ^ Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007. Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom. 2007. http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24025. Retrieved 20 April 2008
- ^ List of banned E.U. air carriers[dead link]
[edit] Book references
[edit] Primary sources
- Keen, David (2005). Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone. Oxford: James Currey. ISBN 0-85255-883-X. ISBN 9780852558836. http://books.google.com/?id=SEz1PCvILHUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Conflict+%26+Collusion+in+Sierra+Leone.
- Kup, Alexander Peter (1961). A History of Sierra Leone, 1400-1787. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0786418141.
- Sillinger, Brett (2003). Sierra Leone: Current Issues and Background. New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 1590336623.
- Utting, Francis A (1931). The Story of Sierra Leone. Ayer Company Publishers. ISBN 0836967046.
- Beah, Ishmael. A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (2007). Sarah Crichton Books: New York. Link: A Long Way Gone
[edit] Secondary sources
- Room, Adrian (1995). Placenames of the World. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 0786418141.
- Levinson, Robby (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook. Phoenix: Oryx Press. ISBN 1573560197.
[edit] Further reading
- Abraham, Arthur (1978). Mende Government and Politics under Colonial Rule. Freetown and London.
- Abraham, Arthur (1978). Cultural Policy in Sierra Leone. UNESCO.
- Abraham, Arthur (1978). "Sengbe Pieh: A Neglected Hero?". Journal of the Historical Society of Sierra Leone II (2).
- Abraham, Arthur (c. 1976). Topics in Sierra Leone History: A Counter-Colonial Interpretation. Sierra Leone: Leone Publishers.
- Bah, M. Alpha (1998). Fulbe Migration in Sierra Leone: A Case History of Twentieth-Century Migration and Settlement Among the Kissi of Koindu. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
- Berger, Daniel (2003). In the Land of Magic Soldiers: A Story of White and Black in West Africa. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Blyden, Nemata Amelia. 'In Her Majesty' Service: West Indians in British Colonial Government, Sierra Leone, 1808-1880: Race, Class and Ethnicity in a British West African Colony.
- Clarke, J.I., Nelson, S.J.A. and Swindell, K. (1966). Sierra Leone in Maps. London.
- Cole, Bernadette (1995). Mass Media, Freedom and Democracy in Sierra Leone. Freetown.
- Conteh-Morgan, Earl and Dixon-Fyle, Mac (1999). Sierra Leone at the End of the Twentieth Century: History, Politics and Society. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
- Cox-George, N. A. (1961). Finance and Development in West Africa: The Sierra Leone Experience. London: D. Dobson.
- Foray, Cyril P. (1977). Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone. Metuchen and London: The Scarecrow Press.
- Forna, Aminatta (2002). The Devil that danced on the Water: A daughter’s memoir. London.
- Fyfe, Christopher (1962). A History of Sierra Leone. Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press.
- Fyle, Christopher (1964). Sierra Leone Inheritance. London.
- Fyfe, Christopher (1992). Africanus Horton, 1835-1883 : West African Scientist and Patriot. Aldershot.
- Gberie, Lansana, Smillie, Ian and Hazleton, Ralph (January 2000). The Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone, Diamonds and Human Society. Partnership Africa Canada.
- Global Witness (June 2000). Conflict Diamonds, Possibilities for the Identification, Certification and Control of Diamonds.
- Hirsch; John L. (2000). Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy. Lynne Rienner Pub.
- Jalloh, Alusine (1999). "African Entrepreneurship: Muslim Fula Merchants in Sierra Leone". Monographs in International Studies, Africa Series (Ohio University Center for International Studies) (71).
- Jalloh, S. Balimo (1991). Sierra Leone. Länderbericht, Bergisch Gladbach.
- Jalloh, S. Balimo (February 2001). "Conflicts, Resources and Social Instability in Subsahara Africa – The Sierra Leone Case". Internationasles Afrikaforum (37): 166–180.
- Jalloh, S. Balimo (April 1995). "Subsahara Africa – Trade Expansion Through Countertrade". Internationales Afrikaforum: 365–374.
- Jones, Durosimi Eldred (1965). Othellos Countrymen. Oxford University Press.
- Jones, Durosimi Eldred and Eustace Palmer (1995). African Literature Today Africa World Press. London.
- Jones, Howard (1986). Mutiny on the Amistad: The Saga of a Slave Revolt and its Impact on American Abolition, Law and Diplomacy. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Kabba, Muctaru, (Editor) (1988). Sierra Leonean Heroes, Fifty Great Men and Women Who Helped to Build Our Nation. Freetown.
- Koroma, Abdul K. (1996). Sierra Leone – The Agony of a Nation. Freetown: Andromeda Publications.
- Kpundeh, Sahr John. Politics and Corruption in Africa: A Case Study of Sierra Leone. Lanham: University Press of America.
- Lewis, Damien (2005). Operation Certain Death - The Inside Story of the SAS'S Greatest Battle. Arrow Books.
- Nicol, Davidson, Regionalism and the New International Economic Order; UNITAR-CEESTEM-Club of Rome conference at the United Nations, Pergamon Press, 1981.
- Opala, Joseph (1987). The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierra Leone-American Connection. U.S. Information Service.
- William Reno (1995). Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone. Cambridge University Press.
- Paul Richards (1996). Fighting for the Rain Forest – War Youth & Resources in Sierra Leone. London: James Currey Publishers.
- Sawyerr, Harry (1970). God, Ancestor or Creator? Aspects of Traditional Belief in Ghana, Nigeria & Sierra Leone. Harlow: Longmans.
- H.L. van der Laan (1965). The Sierra Leone Diamonds, An Economic Study covering the years 1952-1961. Oxford.
- Wyse, Akintola J.G.; Deveneaux, Gustav H.K. (1993). The Sierra Leone-German connection, 1787-1987, An Overview. Freetown: The German Embassy.
- Wyse, Akintola J. G. (1990). H. C. Bankole-Bright and Politics in Colonial Sierra Leone, 1919-1958. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2001). The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation, Chapter Two: Anarchy and Mercenaries in Sierra Leone: The Powerless African State, pp. 19 – 72. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York; Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties, Chapter Twelve: Sierra Leone, pp. 183 – 196, Nova Science Publishers, 2001.
[edit] External links
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- Government
- The Republic of Sierra Leone official government site
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members
- General information
- Country Profile from BBC News
- Sierra Leone entry at The World Factbook
- Sierra Leone from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Sierra Leone at the Open Directory Project
- Wikimedia Atlas of Sierra Leone
- Development Assistance Coordination Office: Sierra Leone Encyclopedia 2008
- News media
- Awareness Times Newspaper
- The New People The New People Newspaper
- Sierra Eye Sierra Leone News Portal
- News headline links from AllAfrica.com
- Sierra Leone world News headline,information and analysis
- Tourism
- National Tourist Board of Sierra Leone official site
- Sierra Leone travel guide from Wikitravel
- Telecommunication
- Sierra Leone telecom
- Other
- Friends of Sierra Leone
- ENCISS civil society and governance
- Aisha's Eye on Sierra Leone a photo documentary
- Sierra Leone Web
- Sweet Salone 2008 film on new music in Sierra Leone
- War Crimes Trials in Sierra Leone
- Sierra Leone Photo Gallery
- Hurrarc - Human Rights Respect Awareness Raising Campaigners - Sierra Leone Ngo
- Environmental Justice Foundation's report on pirate fishing in Sierra Leone
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